The University of Southern Mississippi The Aquila Digital Community Dissertations Spring 5-2017 William Walker and the Seeds of Progressive Imperialism: The War in Nicaragua and the Message of Regeneration, 1855-1860 John J. Mangipano University of Southern Mississippi Follow this and additional works at: https://aquila.usm.edu/dissertations Part of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine Commons, Latin American History Commons, Medical Humanities Commons, Military History Commons, Political History Commons, Social History Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Mangipano, John J., "William Walker and the Seeds of Progressive Imperialism: The War in Nicaragua and the Message of Regeneration, 1855-1860" (2017). Dissertations. 1375. https://aquila.usm.edu/dissertations/1375 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by The Aquila Digital Community. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of The Aquila Digital Community. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WILLIAM WALKER AND THE SEEDS OF PROGRESSIVE IMPERIALISM: THE WAR IN NICARAGUA AND THE MESSAGE OF REGENERATION, 1855-1860 by John J. Mangipano A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School and the Department of History at The University of Southern Mississippi in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Approved: ________________________________________________ Dr. Deanne Nuwer, Committee Chair Associate Professor, History ________________________________________________ Dr. Heather Stur, Committee Member Associate Professor, History ________________________________________________ Dr. Matthew Casey, Committee Member Assistant Professor, History ________________________________________________ Dr. Max Grivno, Committee Member Associate Professor, History ________________________________________________ Dr. Douglas Bristol, Jr., Committee Member Associate Professor, History ________________________________________________ Dr. Kyle F. Zelner Department Chair, History ________________________________________________ Dr. Karen S. Coats Dean of the Graduate School May 2017 COPYRIGHT BY John J. Mangipano 2017 Published by the Graduate School ABSTRACT WILLIAM WALKER AND THE SEEDS OF PROGRESSIVE IMPERIALISM: THE WAR IN NICARAGUA AND THE MESSAGE OF REGENERATION, 1855-1860 by John J. Mangipano May 2017 For a brief period of time, between 1855 and 1857, William Walker successfully portrayed himself to American audiences as the regenerator of Nicaragua. Though he arrived in Nicaragua in June 1855, with only fifty-eight men, his image as a regenerator attracted several thousand men and women to join him in his mission to stabilize the region. Walker relied on both his medical studies as well as his experience in journalism to craft a message of regeneration that placated the anxieties that many Americans felt about the instability of the Caribbean. People supported Walker because he provided a strategy of regeneration that placed Anglo-Americans as the medical and racial stewards of a war-torn region. American faith in his ability to regenerate the region propelled him to the presidency of Nicaragua in July 1856. However, a prolonged war against an ever-growing international coalition of Central Americans diminished his ability to maintain both the territory and resources necessary to keep Nicaragua sanitary and stable. By February 1857, most Americans abandoned any sentiments of support that they once held for Walker. Lacking support, Walker retreated to the Gulf South as a defeated regenerator. Nevertheless, the continued public discourse concerning Walker as a regenerator continued. Such debates allowed Walker to amass enough followers to launch three more expeditions into Nicaragua before finally being captured and executed in Honduras in September 1860. ii Though William Walker did not ultimately succeed as a regenerator, American progressives, such as Theodore Roosevelt, revived his focus on medical and racial stabilization through their own policies in the Caribbean, starting in the 1890s. They did so precisely because they shared the same anxieties about disease and political disorder that originally compelled thousands of Americans to intervene in Nicaragua during the 1850s. The continuity existing between these groups of imperialists suggested that the regenerators, despite their temporary failures, succeeded in nurturing ideas about why Americans needed to intervene in the Greater Caribbean. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Deanne Nuwer for bringing me to the University of Southern Mississippi. Dr. Nuwer demonstrated great interest in my research while I was still a student at the University of New Orleans. I would also like to thank her for serving as both my major professor and my committee chair. I am honored to be her student. I would like to thank my dissertation committee. I am grateful that Dr. Matthew Casey and Dr. Heather Stur served on both my comprehensive exam and dissertation committees. Additionally, I would like to thank Dr. Max Grivno and Dr. Douglas Bristol for joining my dissertation committee. I would not be where I am if not for the proactive, professional mentoring that each of my committee members granted me. I would like to thank my comprehensive exam committee. Dr. Douglas Chambers has shown incredible devotion to my professional development. I am grateful for his efforts as my professor and comprehensive exam committee member, for he helped me achieve my first publication. I am also grateful for the time spent serving as his teaching assistant, for he has taught me how to help students turn information into knowledge. I would also like to thank Dr. Susannah J. Ural for serving on my comprehensive exam committee as well as for the earlier training I received under her guidance during my first semester here. I am also grateful for the efforts of Dr. Kyle F. Zelner, Dr. Kenneth Swope, and Ms. Cindy Warren. Their dedication to the professional development of the graduate students is a testament to the integrity of this university. iv DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this work to my family. My wife, Sasha Chaudron Mangipano, has been my emotional anchor throughout this dissertation. Her love and support invigorated me to push through the tough spots and work harder. I have never felt a day of academic stress since marrying her that her presence could not cure. I would also like to thank my step-children, Christian, Isaac, and Eliana Orr. They could and did surprise me with their often-colorful commentary, such as “no one wants to hear about disease.” In truth, their criticisms reminded me that I had to convince others why they should want to hear about my research. I would like to dedicate this work to my parents, Darryl and Janice Mangipano. They have provided me unmitigated support throughout my academic career. I am driven to work hard because I know that they take such pride in seeing my progress unfold. I am proud to be their son. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ............................................................................................. ix CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION: CONNECTING WILLIAM WALKER AND THE REGENERATION WAR TO EARLY-AMERICAN PROGRESSIVE IMPERIALISM . 1 Introduction and Argument ............................................................................................. 2 Bibliographic Essay ...................................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER II – THE ORIGINS OF THE NICARAGUAN REGENERATION NARRATIVE AND THE SEEDS FOR A REGENERATION RIVALRY .................... 38 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 38 Background: Yellow Fevered-Dreams and Nightmares ............................................... 41 A Destabilized Nicaragua and a Jeopardized Transit Route ......................................... 56 Walker and the Budding Regeneration Narrative ......................................................... 72 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 89 CHAPTER III - FROM COLONEL TO PRESIDENT; FROM ALLIES TO ENEMIES: WALKER’S EARLY VICTORIES IN THE REGENERATION WAR ......................... 94 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 94 The Ascendancy of General William Walker ............................................................. 101 vi The Vanderbilt Rivalry and the Regeneration Narrative ............................................ 125 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 151 CHAPTER IV – THE DEMISE OF THE BOLIVAR OF NICARAGUA AND HIS REGENERATION MISSION ........................................................................................ 153 Introduction ................................................................................................................