WTJ 61 (1999)53-71 RICHARD BAXTER ON CHRISTIAN UNITY: A CHAPTER IN THE ENLIGHTENING OF ENGLISH REFORMED ORTHODOXY* CARL R. TRUEMAN n 1707 a group of non-conformist ministers made a fateful decision that Iwas to have a dramatic effect upon the way in which the great Puritan divine, Richard Baxter, would be known to posterity. Their action effec­ tively divorced Baxter's thought from the context of its times and more or less guaranteed that his reputation for subsequent generations would not be that which he himself would have chosen, or perhaps even recognized. This decision separated his so-called practical works from the rest and arranged that only the former should be republished. The result was four huge tomes of writings, covering everything from conversion through catechising to Christian household management.1 While the tomes were indeed huge, however, they actually represented less than half of what Baxter wrote in his lifetime and excluded precisely those doctrinal works upon which Baxter himself hoped that his reputation would come to rest. The practical writings certainly struck a chord with the English-speaking public. Several editions were published over the subsequent centuries, most recently in the early 1990s. The particular brand of piety which they con­ tained also proved popular in the Highlands of Scotland, where the practical writings enjoyed translation into Gaelic and came to form part of the Carl R. Trueman teaches historical theology in the Department of Divinity at the University of Aberdeen. •An earlier version of this paper was presented to the Kerkhistorisch Gezelschap at their summer meeting in Utrecht, June 1998. 1 The Practical Works of the Ren Richard Baxter, 4 vols., (London, 1707). The best accounts of Baxter's life remain those by E J. Powicke, A Life of the Reverend Richard Baxter (London: Houghton Mifflin, 1924) and The Reverend Richard Baxter under the Cross {1662-91) (London: Houghton Mifflin, 1927). Two more recent lives are those by Geoffrey F. Nuttall, Richard Baxter (London: Nelson 1965), and N. H. Keeble, Richard Baxter: Puritan Man of Letters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982). On Baxter's theology, the following are worth consulting: Anonymous, "Richard Baxter's 'End of Controversy,' " Bibliotheca Sacra and American Biblical Repository 12 (1855) 348-85; Hans Boersma, A Hot Peppercorn: Richard Baxter's Doctrine of Justi­ fication in Its Seventeenth-Century Context of Controversy (Zoetermeer: Boekencentrum, 1993); G. P. Fisher, "The Theology of Richard Baxter," Bibliotheca Sacra and American Biblical Reposi­ tory 9 (1852) 135-69; idem, "The Writings of Richard Baxter," ibid., 300-29; Carl R. True- man, "A Small Step Towards Rationalism: The Impact of the Metaphysics of Tommaso Campanella on the Theology of Richard Baxter" in Carl R. Trueman and R. S. Clark, eds., Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1999), 181-95. 53 54 WESTMINSTER THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL literary culture of the legalistic wing of Scottish Presbyterianism.2 Indeed, so closely did Baxter's practical writings come to be identified with the legalism of Victorian non-conformity that, in The Mill on the Floss, George Eliot underlined the pharisaism of the nauseating Mrs Glegg by noting that she read Baxter's Saints' Everlasting Rest "on wet Sunday mornings—or when she heard of a death in the family—or when. her quarrel with Mr Glegg had been set an octave higher than usual."3 The resulting popular picture of Baxter, to friend and foe alike, is that of a man who was fundamentally concerned with the practical life and expe­ rience of the Christian believer, a pietist avant la lettre. This image has often been combined at a popular level with the notion that Baxter was the calm man of tolerance, the one who sought a middle-way between Arminianism and Reformed Orthodoxy as a means of promoting church unity—a view which has reinforced the image of him as a pietistic writer more concerned about experience and life than about the precise niceties of doctrinal disputes.4 Such a picture, however, does Baxter an injustice, divorcing his practical writings from his life and works as a whole and divorcing his thought from its wider context in what was possibly the most turbulent century in English history. Baxter's image as a non-doctrinaire pietist cannot be sustained in the light of his doctrinal works; and his reputation for tolerant ecumenism cannot be sustained when his campaign for church unity is set against the backdrop of Civil War, Commonwealth, and Restoration. Baxter's thinking on church unity is a highly complex subject, and this paper examines two aspects: the external social and political factors which shaped his views in this area; and the kind of theology and theological method which he used to develop his view of what it meant to be a "meere Catholick." The two sides are inevitably not unrelated, and tell us much about Baxter the Puritan theologian in the seventeenth century; but they also reveal some of the fundamental ambiguities of his thought which are indicative of the transitional nature of his theology, forming as it does a tenuous bridge between the old and the new in the intellectual life of England.5 2 I am grateful to Donald Meek, Professor of Celtic at the University of Aberdeen, for bringing this to my attention. 3 George Eliot, The Mill on the Floss (London: Penguin, 1979), 193. 4 This would certainly appear to be the case from the eighteenth century onwards, where a strong pietistic tradition looked back to his practical works for inspiration: see Geoffrey F. Nuttall, Richard Baxter and Philip Doddridge: A Study in Tradition (London: Oxford University Press, 1951). Nuttall himself is very sympathetic to the pietist analysis: for him, Baxter is the one who "constantly writes out of experience and from his heart," ibid, 13. In his biography, he also underplays the strongly anti-Romanist dimension of his pursuit of church unity: e.g., Richard Baxter, 121, 122. 5 The relationship between Puritanism and Enlightenment is a highly complex one. Those such as Christopher Hill who operate with a Marxian view of history and see the Puritans as representative of the rising bourgeoisie and the Civil War as essentially a class struggle are RICHARD BAXTER ON CHRISTIAN UNITY 55 I. Baxter on Church Unity: the Historical Context The key to unlocking Baxter's thinking on church unity lies in his expe­ rience and understanding of the most cataclysmic event in England in the seventeenth century: the Civil War. The question of Baxter's attitude to, and interpretation of, the Civil War has been obscured somewhat by the fact that his well-known later writings contain much hand-wringing and regret over the events of the 1640s, implying that he quickly became a disillusioned, if not reluctant, Parliamentarian, and his major statement on the war, his A Holy Commonwealth of 1659, which offered a more positive assessment of the conflict, remained an obscure treatise and never enjoyed popular appeal.6 The picture is made yet more complex by the fact that Baxter later repudiated this treatise in public in 1670, while continuing to recommend it in private as necessary reading for understanding the Civil War. Thus, in the preface to A Christian Directory in 1673, he states that the section on political theory is emphatically not the same work as in A Holy Commonwealth which he had recently repudiated.7 Yet in the same year he recommends the book to one Edmund Hough who is writing a history of the Civil War.8 The reasons for Baxter's apparent schizophrenia over the book are some­ what obscure, but the importance of them for understanding why Baxter inclined to regard Puritanism as an early modern movement whose ideology reflected this essential modernity: see his Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (Oxford: Oxford Uni­ versity Press, 1965). More recently "revisionist" historians such as Conrad Russell have called into question the central importance of social and economic class for the Civil War and have thus recast it not as one of the first of the bourgeois revolutions but as one of the last of the wars of religion: see Russell's The Causes of the English Civil War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990). A parallel shift has been taking place in the discipline of the history of ideas with reference to studies of continental Reformed Orthodoxy. Previous scholarship saw the rise of Reformed Orthodoxy, with its increased use of scholastic argumentation and structure, as indicative of an incipient rationalism at work within Protestant theology and thus as adum­ brating later Enlightenment emphases: see, for example, Brian G. Armstrong, Calvinism and the Amyraut Heresy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969) and Ernst Bizer, Fruhortho- daxie und Rationalismus (Zurich: EVZ, 1963). Of late this view has been subjected to vigorous criticism by scholars who point to the fundamentally pre-modern presuppositions of Reformed Orthodoxy and the equivocal use by previous scholars of the word, "rationalism," and its cognates when applied to differing historical periods: see Richard A. Müller, Post Reformation Reformed Dogmatics I: Prolegomena to Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987); Carl R. Trueman, The Claims of Truth: John Owen's Trinitarian Theology (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998). Analysing the intellectual content of Puritanism, and tracing the intellectual relationship between Puritanism and Enlightenment is rendered difficult by the fact that the Puritans were excluded from English universities in the early 1660s, some time before the Enlightenment had any significant impact on English university curricula: see Trueman, Claims of Truth, 1-46. 6 Richard Baxter, A Holy Commonwealth, ed., William Lamont, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 7 See N. H.