An Old Believer ―Holy Moscow‖ in Imperial Russia: Community and Identity in the History of the Rogozhskoe Cemetery Old Believers, 1771 - 1917 Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Doctoral Degree of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Peter Thomas De Simone, B.A., M.A Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2012 Dissertation Committee: Nicholas Breyfogle, Advisor David Hoffmann Robin Judd Predrag Matejic Copyright by Peter T. De Simone 2012 Abstract In the mid-seventeenth century Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow, introduced a number of reforms to bring the Russian Orthodox Church into ritualistic and liturgical conformity with the Greek Orthodox Church. However, Nikon‘s reforms met staunch resistance from a number of clergy, led by figures such as the archpriest Avvakum and Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, as well as large portions of the general Russian population. Nikon‘s critics rejected the reforms on two key principles: that conformity with the Greek Church corrupted Russian Orthodoxy‘s spiritual purity and negated Russia‘s historical and Christian destiny as the Third Rome – the final capital of all Christendom before the End Times. Developed in the early sixteenth century, what became the Third Rome Doctrine proclaimed that Muscovite Russia inherited the political and spiritual legacy of the Roman Empire as passed from Constantinople. In the mind of Nikon‘s critics, the Doctrine proclaimed that Constantinople fell in 1453 due to God‘s displeasure with the Greeks. Therefore, to Nikon‘s critics introducing Greek rituals and liturgical reform was to invite the same heresies that led to the Greeks‘ downfall. However, Tsar Alexei‘s support for Nikon‘s reforms in 1666 split the Russian Orthodox Church in the raskol, between those who supported the reforms, and those who rejected the reforms and identified themselves as staroobriadtsy, or Old Believers (more properly known as Old Ritualists). In the centuries since the raskol, Old Believers maintained their identity as ii not only defenders of pre-Nikonian Russian Orthodoxy, but also their understanding of Russia‘s historical destiny as the Third Rome. This dissertation focuses on the importance of place (defined by geographic location, the construction of community buildings, architecture, the layout of community space, liturgical spaces, and economic foundations) and community (defined by a shared spiritual identity and goals of maintaining spiritual purity) to the Old Believer community of the Rogozhskoe Cemetery of Moscow from its founding in the 1770s until 1917. Founded by priestly (popovtsy) Old Believers (those who still accepted the sanctity and significance of priests in a ―corrupt‖ world, unlike the priestless (bespopovtsy) branch), the Rogozhskoe community eventually became a major spiritual center for the priestly branch of the Old Rite throughout the Russian Empire. Drawing primarily from a collection of archival material held in the Russian State Library and published documents and works by the Rogozhskoe Old Believers, I argue that Rogozhskoe Cemetery both became a physical and ideological representation of the community‘s attempt to create a ―Holy Moscow‖ in their understanding of the Third Rome Doctrine. Furthermore, I argue that the Rogozhskoe Old Believers envisioned their Holy Moscow as a part of two worlds: a community devoted to their shared faith in the Old Rite and as a model Christian community within the Russian Empire. This study, then, argues that the Rogozhskoe Old Believers adapted their Holy Moscow to meet their need to maintain their faith and respond to the political, social, cultural, and economic changes in Imperial Russia from the second half of the eighteenth to early twentieth century. iii Dedication Dedicated to Louis and Elizabeth for their love and support of all of my endeavors And to my parents and grandparents (it is finally finished) iv Acknowledgements First I wish to thank my advisor, Dr. Nicholas Breyfogle for his insight, patience, and guidance in not only my project and research but also in my academic and professional development. A special thanks to my committee members, Dr. David Hoffmann, Dr. Robin Judd, and Dr. Predrag Matejic for their very valued assistance, advice, and participation in this project. I am also grateful to my fellow graduate students in the Russian, East European and Eurasian History Program as well as other close friends in various fields in the graduate program for their advice and support. I am also very thankful to my wonderful and patient wife and son, Elizabeth and Louis for their continued support, love, and understanding throughout this project. I would also like to give special thanks to my parents, Glenn and Patricia for their continuous support throughout my life and for inspiring me to never give up on my dreams. I am also forever grateful to my grandparents Louis and Elaine De Simone and Margaret Callaway for their continued encouragement in my interest in history. Finally, I would like to thank my undergraduate advisors, Dr. Christine Rydel and Dr. Edward Cole for introducing me to the amazing culture and history of Russia. I am very grateful for their continued inspiration and support as I continue my own studies in Russian History. v Vita May 19, 1983 . Born – Warren, Michigan 2005 . B.A. Russian Studies, Grand Valley State University 2008 . M.A. History, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: History vi Table of Contents Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………. ii Dedication………………………………………………………………………………...iv Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………….. v Vita ……………………………………………………………………………………... vi Table of Contents.............................................................................................................vii List of Images..................................................................................................................viii Introduction ...................…………………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 1: Building Holy Moscow……………………………………………………...40 Chapter 2: Identity in Crisis……………………………………………………………102 Chapter 3: Redefining Boundaries, Redefining Identity……………………………….143 Chapter 4: A Brief Triumph……………………………………………………………226 Epilogue and Conclusion...................…………………………………………………..294 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………... 318 vii List of Images Illustration 1. Layout of Rogozhskoe Cemetery, 2007.....................................................10 Illustration 2. Pokrovskii Cathedral, 1883........................................................................70 Illustration 3. Interior Layout of Pokrovskii Cathedral....................................................71 Illustration 4. Nativity Cathedral, 1883............................................................................72 Illustration 5. Interior Layout of Nativity Cathedral........................................................73 Illustration 6. Father Ivan Yastrebov..............................................................................125 Illustration 7. Metropolitan Ambrose ............................................................................132 Illustration 8. Antonii, Archbishop of Moscow and All Rus‘ and deacon, 1870s .........163 Illustration 9. Interior of Pokrovskii Cathedral, 1876.....................................................200 Illustration 10. Interior of Pokrovskii Cathedral, 1876...................................................201 Illustration 11. Image of Damage to Pokrovskii Cathedral Altar, 1905.........................233 Illustration 12. Image of Damage to Pokrovskii Cathedral Altar, 1905.........................233 Illustration 13. Image of Damage to Nativity Cathedral Altar, 1905.............................235 Illustration 14. Draft Blueprint of Rogozhskoe Bell Tower, 1908.................................246 Illustration 15. Dedication of Bell Tower Site, 1908......................................................249 Illustration 16. Rogozhskoe Bell Tower, 1913...............................................................251 Illustration 17. Students of the Old Believer Theological Institute, 1913......................268 Illustration 18. Rogozhskoe Cemetery, 2012.................................................................307 viii Introduction Two Romes have fallen. The Third stands firm. And there will not be a fourth. No one will replace your Christian Tsardom. Hegumen Filofei of Pskov to Grand Duke Vasili III (1510) Since the early 16th century, the Third Rome Doctrine claimed that Muscovite Russia inherited the legacy of the Roman Empire following the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. In this worldview, Russian society and the Russian state not only became the New Rome, but also the protectors of the one true, uncorrupted Christian faith. The Russian people and their faith were the final bastion of Christianity until the End Times. Ultimately, the idea of the Third Rome Doctrine developed into one of the most critical influences in shaping Russian culture and political development for centuries to come. However, by the mid-seventeenth century, Russia‘s Third Rome fell into chaos as Church reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon in 1656-1666 led to the raskol, or schism, of the Russian Orthodox Church. Due to the outcry against the reforms by many laity and spiritual leaders throughout Mucovite Russia—who claimed the reforms invalidated and corrupted the purity and legacy of Russia‘s Third Rome—the raskol resulted in the 1 formation of