Athens Journal of Mediterranean Studies- Volume 6, Issue 4, October 2020 – Pages 279-292 British Women Travellers in Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, 1850–1930 By Amina Marzouk Chouchene* Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco attracted many British women travellers mainly during the second half of the nineteenth century and the early decades of the twentieth. Although their number was smaller than that of their male colleagues, these women were attracted to the so-called North African Barbary States and left interesting accounts of their journeys. They recorded their perceptions of the various regions they visited and the people they encountered. Through examining a corpus of travelogues, this article explores these women’s reasons for travelling to and writing about the three North African countries and their responses to the new lands. The article reveals that these women travellers enjoyed the climates, mineral springs, and natural landscapes of these countries. Keywords: Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, British women travellers, tourism Introduction In the second half of the nineteenth century, the presence of British women travellers in Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco became much more remarkable. This is evident through the proliferation of women’s travelogues describing their journeys to the so-called Barbary States of North Africa. This trend contrasts with the eighteenth century during which most travellers were males. British women’s travels in the three North African countries were enabled, to a large extent, by the political stability following the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and the improved transportation. The introduction of new means of transport such as steamships and railways facilitated the movement of women travellers to different parts of the world including Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. Although the number of British women travellers was smaller than that of men, their travelogues offer detailed descriptions of these North African countries. They provide interesting information about the climate, natural scenery, people’s manners and customs, religion, and other interesting subjects. Nevertheless, scholarly attention to these women’s travelogues remains scant. Most of the existing literature is particularly concerned with notorious male travellers such as John Drummond Hay, Arthur Leared, Thomas Shaw, Greville Temple, and others and considered these travellers’ attitudes to the countries they visited and their obvious feelings of cultural superiority (Chamekh 2018, Manai 2007, Graves 2011). Much of the rare literature on British women travellers in Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco did not deviate from this perspective. In his article "Ellen M.Rogers * Teaching Assistant, The Higher Institute of Theology-Tunis, Tunisia. https://doi.org/10.30958/ajms.6-4-2 doi=10.30958/ajms.6-4-2 Vol. 6, No. 4 Marzouk Chouchene: British Women Travellers in Algeria, Tunisia… as a Feminist and Orientalist Travel Writer," Mouloud Siber provided an analysis of the Orientalist and feminist discourses in Ellen Rogers’s A Winter in Algeria. As a travelogue that confirms the West’s Orientalist attitudes to Algeria, A Winter with Algeria is, according to Siber, laden with negative representations of Algerian people. Rogers described them as politically, culturally, and intellectually inferior to the French and Europeans and especially the English. They were lazy. Unsurprisingly, the average Englishmen engaged in Algiers "take infinite pains in training the ouvriers under them, but the Arabs are usually so lazy that they have to be trained with an iron fist" (Rogers 1865: 53). Moreover, Arabs were regarded by Rogers as habitual liars. This makes French colonization of Algeria a legitimate act. The travelogue, according to Siber, shows also Rogers’s feminist stance. The status of Algerian women as "subjects in need of salvation by their British feminist sisters" is a ubiquitous theme in her travelogue (Siber 2016: 1). The author concluded that the desire to emancipate Algerian women is clearly expressed by Ellen M. Rogers. British women travellers’ perceptions of local women surface also in Adel Manai’s British travellers in Tunisia. Most of the travelogues analyzed by Manai were written by male travellers given the fact that British travellers who journeyed in Tunisia during the nineteenth and early twentieth century were mostly males. Yet British women travellers’ views of Tunisian society and culture are particularly highlighted in Manai’s chapter on "Women and the Harem." Being an exclusive space, British women travellers such as Norma Lorimer, Nesbitt France, Lady Herbert, and others "had the privilege to visit Tunisian harems and report on everything they saw and experienced" (Manai 2007: 65). In other terms, they "were direct eyewitnesses" (Manai 2007: 65). They described Tunisian women’s physical appearances, their dresses, their makeup, and their social ceremonies. In most of their descriptions, their feelings of cultural superiority are obvious. Francis Nesbitt attended a wedding ceremony and described the women as "short and generally stout, handsome in a rather heavy way, with thick painted eyebrows, darkened eyelashes, and henna stained hands" (Manai 2007: 70). She concluded that "all the married women however young, were moving mountains of fat" (Manai 2007: 70). Based on these descriptions and others, Manai rightly remarked that women’s subsidiary position was a major theme in British women’s travelogues. He concluded that "travellers’ descriptions and views of women, with a few exceptions, properly fit in the much broader framework of Western perceptions of what is generally referred to as the Oriental woman" (Manai 2007: 65). Amy J. Johnson also analyzed the writings of a number of late nineteenth and early twentieth century Western women in Morocco including those by some British women such as Amelia Perrier, Eleanor Elsner, and Mrs Howard Vysse. Johnson is mainly interested in highlighting how these women perceived Moroccan women and their role within society and determining the validity of Melman’s major argument that Western women perceived the Orient in a different way from male travellers. Through the major themes of marriage and divorce, life in the harem, women’s dress and appearance, the economic function of women and women and religion, the author classified women travellers into three 280 Athens Journal of Mediterranean Studies October 2020 categories: those who were extremely or mildly critical of the position of Moroccan women, and those who accepted the role of women in Moroccan society. In this way, Johnson did not deal with Western women travellers as a homogenous group. Nevertheless, she noted that gender relations were at the heart of their writings and that this often led, as in Perrier’s case, "to greater reflection on the role and status of women within their own society" (Johnson 2001: 230). This article seeks to contribute to the existing literature on British women travellers in Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco by considering their motivations for travelling to and writing about the North African Barbary States and their representations of the new lands. It spans the second half of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth which coincided with the rise of tourism. The advent of new means of transport such as railway travel, and steamships provided cheaper and safer means of travel over long distances. Women took advantage of these changes and there was a consequent rise in the number of women traveling around the world. The period witnessed also what is commonly referred to as the democratization of travel. Thomas Cook’s tours made travel for leisure and recreation easier and cheaper. Jennifer Speake affirmed that "by providing escorted and lower-cost journeys, and taking care of all the mundane and intimidating details of travel (choosing an itinerary, buying the proper tickets, finding a decent hotel, exchanging currency), Cook made large strides towards the democratization of travel" (Speake 2003: 279). As a result, women began to travel to the Barbary States of North Africa that were traditionally visited by male aristocrats. The article aims to answer the following major questions: Why were these women attracted to these North African countries? How did they react to the new lands they visited? The next section presents some of the primary and secondary sources I relied on to address these questions. The following two sections clearly examine these women’s reasons for visiting and writing about Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco and their responses to the new lands. Research Method The research method is both analytical and descriptive. It pays close attention to British women travellers’ motivations for travelling to and writing about Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. At the same time, it considers how these women perceived the three North African lands. The article is also based on a number of travelogues by British women who journeyed in these countries in the second half of the nineteenth and the early decades of the twentieth century as a primary source. These include but not limited to Herbert’s A Search After Sunshine or Algeria in 1871, Betham-Edwards’s A Winter in the Swallows, Amelia Perrier’s A Winter in Morocco, Eleanor Elsner’s The Magic of Morocco, Mrs Greville Nugent’s A Land of Mosques and Marabouts, Emily Ward’s Three Travellers in North Africa, Lady Warren’s Through Tunisia and Algeria on a Motorcycle. Little biographical information exists about most of these women. Nevertheless, their travelogues illuminate our understanding of their representations of the three North African countries under discussion. Unlike other sources, these women’s 2 8 Vol. 6, No. 4 Marzouk Chouchene: British Women Travellers in Algeria, Tunisia… travelogues cover almost every aspect of the countries they visited. The weather conditions, political systems, trade and commerce, people’s manners, religious beliefs and practices, were some of the predominant themes in these women’s writings. This article relies also on secondary literature on travel and tourism such as the works of Kenneth J.