A Review of Pedestrian Safety Research in the United States and Abroad PUBLICATION NO. FHWA-RD-03-042 JANUARY 2004 Research, Development, and Technology Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center 6300 Georgetown Pike McLean, VA 22101-2296 FOREWORD The overall goal of the Federal Highway Administration’s (FHWA) Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Research Program is to increase pedestrian and bicycle safety and mobility. From better crosswalks, sidewalks, and pedestrian technologies to expanded public educational and safety programs, the FHWA’s Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Research Program aims to pave the way for a more walkable future. The following document summarizes research on pedestrian safety in the United States with a focus on crash characteristics and the safety effects of various roadway features and traffic-control devices; it also considers pedestrian educational and enforcement programs. This pedestrian safety synthesis was part of a large FHWA study (“Evaluation of Pedestrian Facilities”) that has generated several other documents on the safety of pedestrian crossings and the effects of innovative engineering treatments on pedestrian safety. These other reports on pedestrian safety likely will interest readers. The results of this research will be useful to transportation researchers, engineers, planners, and safety professionals involved in improving pedestrian safety and mobility. Michael F. Trentacoste Director, Office of Safety Research and Development NOTICE This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein only because they are considered essential to the purpose of the document. Technical Report Documentation Page 1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No. FHWA-RD-03-042 4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date A Review of Pedestrian Safety Research in the United States and Abroad January 2004 6. Performing Organization Code 8. Performing Organization Report No. 7. Author(s) B.J. Campbell, Charles V. Zegeer, Herman H. Huang, and Michael J. Cynecki 9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research Center 730 Airport Rd, CB #3430 11. Contract or Grant No. Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3430 DTFH61-92-C-00138 12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered Office of Safety Research and Development Final Report Federal Highway Administration 1999-2002 6300 Georgetown Pike 14. Sponsoring Agency Code McLean, VA 22101-2296 15. Supplementary Notes This report is part of a larger study for FHWA entitled, “Evaluation of Pedestrian Facilities.” FHWA Contracting Officer’s Technical Representatives (COTRs): Carol Tan Esse and Ann Do, HRDS. 16. Abstract The purpose of this report is to provide an overview of research studies on pedestrian safety in the United States; some foreign research also is included. Readers will find details of pedestrian crash characteristics, measures of pedestrian exposure and hazard, and specific roadway features and their effects on pedestrian safety. Such features include crosswalks and alternative crossing treatments, signalization, signing, pedestrian refuge islands, provisions for pedestrians with disabilities, bus stop location, school crossing measures, reflectorization and conspicuity, grade- separated crossings, traffic-calming measures, and sidewalks and paths. Pedestrian educational and enforcement programs also are discussed. This report is an update resulting from two earlier reports. The most recent was Synthesis of Safety Research: Pedestrians, by C.V. Zegeer (FHWA-SA-91-034, Aug. 1991). The earlier work was Chapter 16, “Pedestrian Ways” by R.C. Pfefer, A. Sorton, J. Fegan, and M.J. Rosenbaum, which was published by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in Synthesis of Safety Research Related to Traffic Control and Roadway Elements (from Volume 2, Dec. 1982). This updated report includes results from numerous studies, foreign and domestic. A review of pedestrian safety research from Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom is given at: www.walkinginfo.org/rd/international.htm. 17. Key Words: 18. Distribution Statement Pedestrians, safety research, crashes, No restrictions. This document is available to the public countermeasures, education, enforcement through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161 19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price Unclassified Unclassified 150 Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of form and completed page is authorized i SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS WHEN YOU MULTIPLY WHEN YOU MULTIPLY SYMBOL TO FIND SYMBOL SYMBOL TO FIND SYMBOL KNOW BY KNOW BY LENGTH LENGTH in inches 25.4 millimeters mm mm millimeters 0.039 inches in ft feet 0.305 meters m m meters 3.28 feet ft yd yards 0.914 meters m m meters 1.09 yards yd mi miles 1.61 kilometers km km kilometers 0.621 miles mi AREA AREA in2 square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm2 mm2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2 ft2 square feet 0.093 square meters m2 m2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft2 yd2 square yard 0.836 square meters m2 m2 square meters 1.195 square yards yd2 ac acres 0.405 hectares ha ha hectares 2.47 acres ac mi2 square miles 2.59 square kilometers km2 km2 square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2 VOLUME VOLUME ii fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz gal gallons 3.785 liters L L liters 0.264 gallons gal ii 3 ft cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3 m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3 yd3 cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m3 m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3 NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m3 MASS MASS oz ounces 28.35 grams g g grams 0.035 ounces oz lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb T short tons (2000 0.907 megagrams (or Mg (or "t") Mg (or "t") megagrams (or 1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T lb) "metric ton") "metric ton") TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o o o o F Fahrenheit 5 (F-32)/9 Celsius C C Celsius 1.8C+32 Fahrenheit F or (F-32)/1.8 ILLUMINATION ILLUMINATION fc foot-candles 10.76 lux lx lx lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 candela/m2 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf 2 2 lbf/in poundforce per 6.89 kilopascals kPa kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per lbf/in square inch square inch *SI is the symbol for the International System of Units. Appropriate rounding should be made to comply with Section 4 of ASTM E380. (Revised March 2003) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PART 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................... 1 Organization of this Report ........................................................... 2 Summary of Main Findings ........................................................... 2 Evolution of Vehicle/Pedestrian Collision Problems ...................................... 4 Guides and Model Programs .......................................................... 6 PART 2. CRASHES INVOLVING PEDESTRIANS .............................. 13 Introduction .............................................................13 Limitations of National Pedestrian Crash Data .......................................... 13 The Number of Pedestrian Fatalities .................................................. 13 When Do Pedestrian Collisions Occur? ................................................ 15 Who Is Involved in Pedestrian Crashes? ............................................... 24 Where Do Pedestrian Collisions Occur? ............................................... 32 How Do Pedestrian Collisions Occur? ................................................. 38 How Severe Are Pedestrian Collisions? ................................................ 47 Summary of Pedestrian Collision Statistics ............................................. 49 Exposure-Based Hazard Index ....................................................... 51 Conflict Analysis Hazard Formula .................................................... 53 PART 3. OVERVIEW OF PEDESTRIAN CRASH COUNTERMEASURES AND SAFETY PROGRAMS ................................................... 57 Cautions Regarding Design Problems in Studies of Countermeasure Effectiveness .... 57 Marked Crosswalks ................................................................. 58 Crash Studies ............................................................... 58 Behavioral Studies ........................................................... 63 Assessment of Literature ...................................................... 66 Alternative Crossing Treatments ...................................................... 66 Crosswalk Illumination .............................................................. 68 Barriers, Signals, and Signage to Restrict Pedestrian Movements .......................... 70 Median Barriers ............................................................. 70 Freeway Barriers ............................................................ 70 Roadside/Sidewalk Barriers