ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF SONGS WITH VIOLENT LYRICS ON INTERPERSONAL AGGRESSION By Grant M. Heller The focus of this study was to investigate the relation between listening to music containing violent lyrics and interpersonal aggression. To examine this relation, participants wrote a brief essay and then received feedback from a second ostensible participant as part of a study on peer feedback and writing. Participants were assigned randomly to receive either positive or negative feedback from the other and were then provided an opportunity to evaluate an essay written by the other. Prior to receiving the feedback, participants were assigned randomly to listen to a song with either violent lyrics or non-violent lyrics. Consistent with previous research, those receiving provocative negative feedback reported more negative affect and evaluated the second participant‟s essay more negatively than those who received positive feedback. However, despite finding a difference in perceived aggressive content between violent and non-violent songs, exposure to violent songs had no discernable effect on interpersonal aggression. The results provide mixed support for predictions made using the General Aggression Model (GAM). THE EFFECT OF SONGS WITH VIOLENT LYRICS ON INTERPERSONAL AGGRESSION by Grant M. Heller A Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfillment ofthe Requirements For the Degree of Master of Science-Psychology Plan of Study Experimental at The University ofWisconsin Oshkosh Oshkosh WI 54901-8621 May 2009 INTERIM PROVOST AND VICE CHANCELLOR Advisor CCEtf:: C~)~, - Ol _ ....S......f-!=~~!j,f-~..;;;..O~9__Date Approved ::;../ J1 (.)Or Date Approved Member FORMAT APPROVAL Member i, Date Approved Date Approved -=-----"'I!!'--L-~-I-_ For Sylvie: My best friend, my love, and my inspiration. Thank you for always believing in me. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to the members of my thesis committee for their time, support, and guidance. Thank you Dr. David Lishner for serving as chairperson for my committee; I am grateful for your insightful coaching and counsel, as well as your abundant patience with me throughout this lengthy process. Thank you to Dr. Frances Rauscher for your willingness to serve as a mentor for me, and for fostering my excitement with psychological research in the first place. Thank you to Dr. Susan McFadden for providing your clarity and wisdom, as well as your expertise in the area of emotion. I also wish to thank Justin Fowler for devoting countless hours to mastering the experimental procedure involved with this study and in assisting with data collection. Thank you to Carla Eichinger for acting as the voice of Samantha Becket. Thank you also to my parents for all of your help and support. Finally, I wish to thank all my other friends, fellow students, and teachers in the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh Psychology Department. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………....1 Definitions of Aggression…………………………………………………………2 Models of Aggression....…..………………………………………………………4 Frustration-Aggression Model and Cognitive Neoassociation Theory.…...4 Social Learning Theory……………………………………………………6 Script Theory……………………………………………………………....7 Social Interaction Theory………………………………………………….7 Excitation Transfer……….…………………………………………….….8 General Aggression Model.………………………………………………………..9 Inputs………………………………………………………………………9 Routes.……………………………………………………………………10 Outcomes.………………………………………………………………...11 Violent Media.……………………………………………………………………12 Music and Emotion……………………………………………………………....15 Present Research……………………………………………………………..…..17 HYPOTHESES…………………………………………………………………………..18 METHODS………………………………………………………………………………19 Participants……………………………………………………………………….19 Procedure…………………………………………………………………...…….19 Music Conditions…………………………………………….…………..22 Feedback Conditions…………………………………………..…………23 RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………..26 Inputs: Ratings of Violence………………………………………..…………….26 Routes: Mood Ratings………………………………………………..………….26 Outcomes: Aggression.………………………………………………….……….28 v TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………………30 Limitations…………………………………………………………………...…..33 Future Directions..………………………...………………………………..…….35 Implications…………………………………………………...….………………35 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………37 APPENDIXES Appendix A: Peer Review Study Informed Consent………………………….…38 Appendix B: Peer Review Study Instructions.…………………………………...40 Appendix C: Essay Task....……………………………………………………....42 Appendix D: Music Pilot Study Informed Consent……………………………...44 Appendix E: Music Pilot Study Instructions.…………………………………….46 Appendix F: Music Questionnaire……………………………………………….48 Appendix G: Audio Instructions…………………………………….......……….51 Appendix H: Lyric Conditions…………………………………………...………53 Appendix I: Song Lyrics…………………………………………………………55 Appendix J: Feedback Form……………………………………………….…….64 Appendix K: Essay in Female Handwriting.……………………………….…….66 Appendix L: Essay in Male Handwriting.……………………………………..…68 Appendix M: Positive Feedback in Female Handwriting………………………..70 Appendix N: Insulting Negative Feedback in Female Handwriting…………..…72 Appendix O: Positive Feedback in Male Handwriting………………………..…74 Appendix P: Insulting Negative Feedback in Male Handwriting……………..…76 Appendix Q: Quality of Feedback Questionnaire…………………………..……78 Appendix R: Tables...…………………………………………………………….81 Appendix S: Figures...……………………………………………………………87 REFERENCES.………………...………………………………………………………...92 vi 1 I put a hole in a nigga for fucking with me My back on the wall, now you gonna see Better watch how you talk, when you talk about me 'Cause I'll come and take your life away - 50 Cent, “Many Men” (2003a) INTRODUCTION A large body of research suggests that exposure to violent media increases accessibility to aggressive cognitions and the expression of aggressive behavior (Anderson et al., 2003). Studies investigating the consequences of exposure to violent media span five decades, and include numerous experiments, a meta-analysis (Paik & Comstock, 1994), and a major longitudinal study (Huesmann, Moise-Titus, Podolski, & Eron, 2003). In addition to television programs and movies, this research has broadened its scope through the years to examine the effects of violent video games, pornography, music videos, and music on aggressive cognition and behavior. Overall, findings largely support the hypothesis of a positive association between exposure to violent media and subsequent aggressive behavior (e.g., American Psychological Association, 1993; Center for Disease Control, 1991; Joint Statement, 2001; National Academy of Science, 1993; National Institute of Mental Health, 1982; National Television Violence Study, 1996; Surgeon General, 1972). The implications of this association have been compelling enough to spur debates concerning first amendment rights as to whether the government should restrict access to media violence (e.g., Leone, Szumski, Stalcup, Barbour, & Dudley, 1999; “Violence Bill Debated in Washington,” 1990). 2 The focus of this study was to investigate the relation between listening to music containing violent lyrics and interpersonal aggression. Interest in the influence of music on personality and behavior goes back to the ancient Greeks. Discussion of the use of music for the edification of moral character can be found in Aristotle‟s Politics and Plato‟s Laws (Grout & Palisca, 2001). In fact, Plato even warned that, “Any musical innovation is full of danger to the whole state, and ought to be prohibited” (cited in Fox & Williams, 1974, p. 352). Yet, in comparison to other forms of media, relatively little research has been conducted solely on music without accompanying video content. Of these studies, few have considered the effects of lyric content on aggression, and fewer still have incorporated behavioral measures in their methods. Definitions of Aggression Aggression has been defined as, “behavior whose goal is the injury of some object” (Berkowitz, 1962, p. 1). Bushman and Anderson (2001) prescribe the additional requirements that the perpetrator of an aggressive act must have purposeful and proximate (immediate) intent to harm the target and the target must be perceived as having motivation to avoid this behavior. Bushman and Anderson also argue that human aggression only occurs if the harmful act is directed toward an individual. Thus, the unintentional injury of another driver, or damage to the driver‟s car, in an auto accident would not constitute an aggressive act. Likewise, a dentist who performs a necessary root canal on a patient would not be committing an aggressive act. In this situation, the patient is willingly undergoing the procedure, and both parties believe that the act will be 3 beneficial despite the pain involved. Another example of non-aggressive behavior that involves harm would be sexual sadomasochistic interaction between consenting adults. In such situations, the administration of pain is not considered aggressive because the submissive party receives or seeks punishment willingly. Aggression is sometimes compared and contrasted with violence, which is defined as behavior motivated by a desire to cause extreme physical harm to another (Bushman & Anderson, 2001). The primary difference between aggression and violence lies in the severity of the intended consequences of the perpetrator‟s actions. For example, pushing another person to the ground in order to hurt the person would constitute an aggressive act, but not necessarily violence. In contrast, pushing another person in front of a moving