Autonomous Collaborative Unmanned Vehicles: Technological Drivers and Constraints David G. Bowen Scott C. MacKenzie DEFENCE R&D CANADA Contract Report DRDC CR-2003-003 September 2003 This page has been deliberately left blank Page intentionnellement blanche Autonomous Collaborative Unmanned Vehicles: Technological Drivers and Constraints Authors: David G. Bowen, P. Eng. Sparktek Ltd. Scott C. MacKenzie, P. Eng. Consulting and Audit Canada Date: August 28, 2003 CAC Project Number: 510-2984 This contract was funded by the Canadian Forces Experimentation Centre (CFEC). This page has been deliberately left blank Page intentionnellement blanche Table of Contents Executive Summary………………………………………………………………..vi 1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Objectives and Scope............................................................................................... 2 1.2 Definitions........................................................................................................... 3 2 The Battlespaces and Robots ................................................................................... 5 2.1 Space................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Air ..................................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Ground .............................................................................................................. 11 2.4 Marine............................................................................................................... 12 2.5 Undersea ........................................................................................................... 13 2.6 Cyber................................................................................................................. 14 2.7 Interbody........................................................................................................... 15 3 Current State of the Art in Robotics for UXVs.................................................... 16 3.1 Short History..................................................................................................... 19 3.2 Two Approaches to Intelligent Behaviour........................................................ 20 3.3 Emergence of Single Mission Robots into Everyday Life................................ 21 3.4 Artificial Life .................................................................................................... 27 3.5 Microbots .......................................................................................................... 30 3.6 Nanobots ........................................................................................................... 32 3.7 Cyberbots .......................................................................................................... 33 3.8 Commercialization of the Autonomous Robotics............................................. 33 4 A Road Map to Fully Autonomous Cooperative UXVs ...................................... 35 5 Technological Challenges to Overcome ................................................................ 42 5.1 Robotics, Dynamics and Mobility .................................................................... 49 5.1.1 Robotics, Dynamics and Mobility Issues for Space ................................. 50 5.1.2 Robotics, Dynamics and Mobility Issues for Air...................................... 50 5.1.3 Robotics, Dynamics and Mobility Issues for Ground............................... 51 5.1.4 State-of-the-art in Leg mobility – an example from MIT......................... 54 5.1.5 Robotics, Dynamics and Mobility Issues for Marine ............................... 60 5.1.6 Robotics, Dynamics and Mobility Issues for Underwater........................ 60 5.1.7 Robotics, Dynamics and Mobility Issues for Cybots................................ 60 5.2 Intelligent Software, Sensing and Navigation .................................................. 60 5.2.1 Intelligent Software, Sensing and Navigation Issues for Space ............... 62 5.2.2 Intelligent Software, Sensing and Navigation Issues for Air.................... 62 5.2.3 Intelligent Software, Sensing and Navigation Issues for Ground............. 62 5.2.4 Intelligent Software, Sensing and Navigation Issues for Marine ............. 62 5.2.5 Intelligent Software, Sensing and Navigation Issues for Underwater ...... 63 5.2.6 Intelligent Software, Sensing and Navigation Issues for Cyberbots......... 63 5.3 Control Systems................................................................................................ 63 5.4 Materials ........................................................................................................... 64 5.5 Communications ............................................................................................... 68 5.6 Power/Energy Systems ..................................................................................... 69 5.6.1 Power/Energy Issues for Space................................................................. 70 Final: August 28, 2003 Page i 5.6.2 Power/Energy Issues for Air..................................................................... 72 5.6.3 Power/Energy Issues for Ground.............................................................. 73 5.6.4 Power/Energy Issues for Marine............................................................... 73 5.6.5 Power/Energy Issues for Underwater ....................................................... 73 5.6.6 Power/Energy Issues for Cybots............................................................... 73 6 Vehicle Performance Optimization....................................................................... 74 6.1 Vehicle Scale .................................................................................................... 74 6.2 Range and Endurance ....................................................................................... 74 6.3 Maintainability.................................................................................................. 74 6.3.1 Maintainability Issues for Space............................................................... 75 6.3.2 Maintainability Issues for Air ................................................................... 75 6.3.3 Maintainability Issues for Ground ............................................................ 75 6.3.4 Maintainability Issues for Marine............................................................. 75 6.3.5 Maintainability Issues for Underwater...................................................... 75 6.3.6 Maintainability Issues for Cyberbots........................................................ 76 6.4 Availability ....................................................................................................... 76 6.5 Reliability.......................................................................................................... 76 6.5.1 Reliability Issues for Space....................................................................... 76 6.5.2 Reliability Issues for Air........................................................................... 76 6.5.3 Reliability Issues for Ground.................................................................... 77 6.5.4 Reliability Issues for Marine..................................................................... 77 6.5.5 Reliability Issues for Underwater ............................................................. 77 6.5.6 Reliability Issues for Cyberbots................................................................ 77 6.6 Survivability...................................................................................................... 77 6.7 Payload.............................................................................................................. 78 6.8 Detectability (Stealth) ....................................................................................... 78 6.9 Cost ................................................................................................................... 78 6.10 Autonomy ......................................................................................................... 79 6.10.1 Autonomy Issues for Space ...................................................................... 80 6.10.2 Autonomy Issues for Air........................................................................... 81 6.10.3 Autonomy Issues for Ground.................................................................... 81 6.10.4 Target Identification.................................................................................. 82 6.10.5 Interacting with Military Vehicles and Personnel .................................... 83 6.10.6 Autonomy Issues for Marine .................................................................... 83 6.10.7 Autonomy Issues for Underwater ............................................................. 83 6.10.8 Autonomy Issues for Cyberbots................................................................ 83 7 Symmetric and Asymmetric Threats .................................................................... 84 7.1 Disruptive Technologies, Asymmetric and Symmetric Warfare...................... 84 8 Canadian Capabilities in Robotics ........................................................................ 86 Glossary Bibliography Appendix A – Existing Cyberbots Appendix B –