31. Game Meats I

31. Game Meats I

31. Game Meats I Peter Wynn and Nicole Spiegel Learning objectives On completion of this topic you should have an understanding of: • The species that are used for game meat consumption both in Australia and the rest of the world • The characteristics of meat for each species that are different from those in the major commercial meat animals, cattle, sheep and pigs. • Methods of farming and harvesting that are unique to each species. • Export legislation and quality control standards • The utilisation of Australia’s own game meat animal • An example of turning non-conventional farming into mainstream farming in Australia • Effects of stunning methods on carcase and meat quality • The importance of shelf life and colour stability of fresh meat and its relation to temperature and nutritive value Key terms and concepts: Carcase composition and leanness; Sustainable production from wild resources; Domestication of species; Maintaining food hygiene standards; Exploiting these resources to meet world demand for dietary protein. 31.1 Introduction The use of wild animals as a source of protein for human ancestors has been identified as long as 5 million years ago. The appearance of Homo sapiens around 250,000 years ago ushered in an era in which animals were hunted for sources of both meat for food and skins for clothing. Figure 31.1. Cave painting of hunters. Source: www.hiandlomodern.com/IMAGES/METAL/BARWARE/hunterstray.jpg Early European populations used their survival instincts to combat cold weather by hunting animals for these purposes. In many ways, the exploitation of animals in the wild for both food and skins persists in many parts of the world for similar purposes. Of course, the animals had to survive under these same rigorous climatic conditions. They too had to evolve homeorhetic mechanisms to enable them to store energy in the form of fat reserves in times when dietary energy resources were plentiful, which would then be available for mobilization when feed intake was limited. As a consequence of its highly calorific value, this tissue then assumed great importance in providing a source of energy for human diets. MEAT418/518 Meat Technology - 31 - 1 ©2009 The Australian Wool Education Trust licensee for educational activities University of New England Animals in the wild undergo seasonal changes in carcase composition in order to survive in environments in which the availability of dietary energy sources fluctuates markedly. In many instances, these animals have adopted the strategy of altering their metabolic rate in order to conserve body energy reserves for the most essential of physiological functions including the maintenance of brain, heart, lung, visceral organ and reproductive function. Under such conditions, severe depletion of fat depots was possible with the consequence that meat products developed from harvested carcases may be extremely low in fat content. The influence of farming: Many species were domesticated as nomadic lifestyles gave way to more permanent farming systems. Species chosen for animal production were generally the most productive and were present in large numbers in that environment. Thus the horse, camel, cattle and goat dominated farming systems in the grasslands of central Asia, while the llama and alpaca of the South American Highlands, the yak of Central Asia and the reindeer of the cold north dominated in these environments. In contrast, pigs, cattle, sheep and horses adapted rapidly to wide regions of the populated world, thus these animals are no longer considered as game animals. Conventional animal breeding practices have resulted in the evolution of animals that are far more efficient at converting dietary nutrients into carcase tissues, which includes substantial deposition of adipose tissue. 31.2 Species used for game meats Typically, indigenous animal populations are used for domestic meat production to meet dietary needs for animal protein in both developing and developed countries. These animals are mostly harvested from the wild, however a number of species have been domesticated into conventional farming systems under which their nutritional and health status can be monitored closely. In these systems, animals have typically not been subjected to commercial genetic selection programs, although there may be an inadvertent selection process for animals that are more tractable in semi- confined grazing systems. Inevitably, those with great commercial potential will be subjected to these processes and become part of the mainstream of commercial livestock production systems, and as such, may no longer be classified as game meats. An example is the farming of deer to provide a reliable high quality source of venison to meet the increasing world demand, particularly in Europe. At the other end of the spectrum some species are exploited as a source of animals for leisure hunting activities. New Zealand, for instance has on offer an array of wild species for one to track down if they wish to do so, such as the Red deer, Elk, Chamois, Tahr, wild boar and Sika, but only through the assistance of local knowledge or a good guide. Traditionally, the populations of large cats such as tigers and lions have been decimated by this industry in Asia and Africa. They are of course valued more for their skins than for meat. Other examples of species exploited are abound, particularly on the veldts of southern Africa, such as the rhinoceros, elephants, leopards, wildebeest, zebras, baboons, gorillas, gazelles, bush pigs, hippopotamus, and ostriches, all of which as well as many others are on offer for those affluent enough to afford these exotic adventures. Safari companies offering these services are readily locatable on the Internet. Bushmeat Bushmeat is the term used that describes any wild animal hunted for food, or simply, the meat of wild animals. Bushmeat remains the sole source of animal protein for many communities across the globe. Although duikers (small antelope), rats, porcupines and monkeys are most commonly eaten, bushmeat can include any type of terrestrial wild animal from snails to elephants. While some amphibious or semi-aquatic freshwater animals, such as frogs, turtles and crocodiles, are also regarded as bushmeat, fish are not included under this category Meat form Zebras, for instance, is a bushmeat. It is much like horse meat, where the colour of fresh zebra meat is very dark due to high myoglobin level, and cooking losses are low. There are several species of African zebra in the genus Equus and dressed carcase weights range from around 114 to 187kg, with dressing percentages from 53 to 60% (Swatland, 2004). Other bushmeat examples, or alternative animals that can be used as meat producers include: the one-humped camel, water 31 - 2 – MEAT418/518 Meat Technology ©2009 The Australian Wool Education Trust licensee for educational activities University of New England buffalo, kangaroo, harp seal and ostrich. The kangaroo, for instance, produces a lean carcase, where the mean percentage of carcase muscle in the liveweight has been reported as 51.7% (Tribe and Peel, 1963). In a study using nine Red and four Grey Kangaroos, Tribe and Peel (1963) showed that kangaroos were a lean alternative, where they exhibited more muscle and less total fat compared with domestic livestock of similar liveweights, refer to Table 31.1 below. Table 31.1. A comparison of carcase protein composition from different species. Source: Modified from Tribe and Peel, (1963) Species Carcase Muscle as Number of % of Liveweight Animals Pig 31.9 ± 2.0 20 Cattle (Bos Taurus) 31.7 ± 1.8 14 Cattle (Bos indicus) 32.5 ± 2.0 30 Goat 31.3 ± 2.6 13 Sheep 26.9 ± 0.6 13 Wildebeest 41.6 ± 2.6 5 Gazelle 45.6 ± 2.8 5 Kangaroo 51.7 ± 0.5 12 Bushmeats also are often of favourable nutritive value and can compare well with the quality of more conventional meat types. Below (Table 31 2) is a list of mineral profiles for different alternative meat species compared with beef and chicken. The conflict between commercial hunters who have no regard for the principles of conservation and sustainable harvesting and indigenous communities intent on maintaining an equilibrium between their needs and those of the animal species to persist in viable and sustainable numbers, remains an important imperative for legislators world-wide Regrettably, the commercial value of the resource often overrides community needs and corrupt legislators are rewarded financially for their lack of diligence in enforcing laws designed to protect the needy. Table 31.2. Mineral composition (mg / 100 g edible portion) of meat from different species. Source: Modified from Sales, (1995) Mineral Camel Water Harp seal Ostrich Beef Chicken (n=7) buffalo (n=15) (n=12) (n=24) Zinc 3.81 - 2.80 - 4.3 1.54 Calcium 5.20 7.5 591 1.72 7 12 Potassium 345 324 288 - 350 229 Magnesium 19.63 - 34.2 - 20 25 Sodium 77.91 111 159 70.55 61 77 Copper 0.080 - 0.10 - 0.14 0.053 Manganese 0.007 - <0.10 - 0.04 0.019 Iron 1.28 2.7 64.6 2.87 2.1 0.89 Phosphorus 189.1 213 504 - 180 173 : 31.3 Species harvested from the wild: Australian marsupials Kangaroos, also known as macropods (meaning ‘great footed’ and belonging to the super family Macropodidae) are harvested for both meat and leather production, which forms an industry worth over $200 million and employing between 3,000 and 4,000 people in rural towns. Many of these jobs are located in isolated areas of Australia thus the industry plays a significant role to the economy of Australia’s rural communities. Of the 60 species of macropod marsupials known, half have decreased in number or distribution while only 14 have either sustained or increased their population since 1960 when records were first kept.

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