Imageability and Intelligibility in 3D Game Environments Examining Experiential and Cultural Influence on the Design Process by Alan Summers A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Central Lancashire June 2014 University of Central Lancashire Student Declaration I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution. I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work Signature of Candidate: Type of Award: Doctor of Philosophy School: Computing Engineering and Physical Sciences ii Abstract The games industry has developed online multiplayer three-dimensional game worlds that allow players from different geographical locations to engage in competitive and cooperative gameplay together. This has enabled players from different cultures to inhabit the same virtual game world, bypassing any geographical or cultural boundaries found in the real world. These 3D game worlds ask the player to use the basic principles of spatial awareness and movement from the real world, and are often virtual representations of real world environments. These spaces are designed for players from all nationalities to inhabit concurrently. There is now a need to determine design considerations for these multicultural multiplayer game worlds but any investigation must consider the historical evidence from the games industry of cultural differences in gameplay preferences. This thesis discusses the effect of cultural knowledge on the spatial design and interpretation of three-dimensional game environments that are based on real world affordances. A new methodology for the comparative analysis of the design of three- dimensional game environments is established using Space Syntax metrics. This facilitates the discussion of cultural models applied to design thinking for the implementation and interpretation of game environments. Through spatial metrics the analysis of the intelligibility underlying three-dimensional game environments is correlated to the imageability of the projected two-dimensional screen image. The application of this methodology to internationally popular, and culturally specific, game environments establishes new knowledge on tacit cultural influences within game design processes. The analysed intelligibility of the environments indicates cognitive differences between Eastern and Western cultures, already recognised in the interpretation of two-dimensional imagery, also exist within the design and interpretation of three-dimensional game spaces. This study establishes a new methodology through the analysis of intelligibility for design research into game environments. The resulting evaluation of tacit cultural influences within the design of the environments establishes new cultural differences and commonalities. These design characteristics can inform future game design methodologies within industry for the design and implementation of multicultural game environments. iii Acknowledgements This research question was originally formed during my Masters studies in Game Design in 2002. During my subsequent travels as a design educator I was constantly reminded that I had not found how cultural differences I encountered might determine differences in game worlds. I am thankful to my supervisory team for having the faith in me after our first meeting to consider that I might be able to resolve at least some element of this question. I would like to thank my Director of Studies Dr Gareth Bellaby who has offered guidance and support on this journey through a wide range of academic subject areas. I am grateful to all of my supervisory team. Professor Lik-Kwan Shark whose rigour developed my confidence to push methodologies into more mathematical areas that I would normally back away from. Professor Simon Robertshaw who saw the potential in the problem and offered encouragement throughout bringing different design viewpoints to bear on the study. Professor Chris Meigh-Andrews who led the discussion into digital arts and cultural practices that helped balanced the maths and keep me sane. Finally I would like to express my eternal love and gratitude to my wife who has offered me nothing but patience, support and understanding through the trials and tribulations of this study. iv Table Of Contents Chapter Page Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Structure of the Thesis 7 Chapter 2: A Design Research Methodology ............................................... 10 2.1 Design Research 12 2.2 Experiential Knowledge 14 2.2 Spatial Embodiment in the Game Space 18 2.3 Imageability and Intelligibility 20 2.3.1 Imageability 21 2.3.2 Intelligibility 23 2.3.3 A Method for Capturing the Qualities of an Environment 24 Chapter 3: Frameworks for Design? ............................................................. 25 3.1 Geographic Markets and Cultural Preference 25 3.2 The Academic Study of Games 31 3.2.1 Theoretical Models of Games 33 3.2.2 Cultural Studies of Games 36 3.3 Cultural Models and Game Design 39 3.3.1 Cultural Models: Hall 39 3.3.2 Cultural Models: Hofstede 41 3.3.3 Cultural Models: Nisbett 43 3.3.4 Cultural Models: Conclusion 46 3.4 Conclusion 47 Chapter 4: Spatial Investigation .................................................................... 48 4.1 Transferring the Real to the Virtual 50 4.1.1 Architecture in Games 53 4.1.2 Cultural Interpretation of Environments 55 4.1.3 Games and Architectural Theory 58 4.1.4 A Conclusion on Transferring the Real to the Virtual 62 4.2 Investigating Real World Replication. 63 4.2.1 The Replication of Farnsworth House 64 4.2.2 The Replication of Falling Water 66 4.2.3 Buildings in Second Life 70 4.2.4 The Transfer of Environments into Digital Worlds 73 4.2.5 Architecture as Narrative 79 4.4 Conclusion on Architecture in Virtual Environments 85 Chapter 5: Space Syntax as a Method .......................................................... 86 5.1 Space Syntax as a Method to Analyse Game Worlds 86 5.2 The Isovist as Applied to Games 90 5.2.1 Isovist Area 92 5.2.2 Isovist Perimeter 92 5.2.3 Isovist Occlusivity 92 5.2.4 Isovist Maximum Radial 93 5.2.5 Isovist Compactness also known as Circularity 93 5.2.6 Isovists in a Game Environment 94 5.3 Visibility Graph Analysis (VGA) as Applied to Games 97 5.3.1 Constructing a Visibility Graph 99 5.3.2 The Neighbourhood 102 5.3.3 Global Measurements: Mean Depth 103 5.3.4 Global Measurements: Visual Integration 104 5.3.5 Global Measurements: Relativised Visual Entropy 105 5.3.6 Local Measurements: Clustering Coefficient 106 5.3.7 Local Measurements: Visual Control 106 5.3.8 Local Measurements: Visual Controllability 107 5.4 Applying Spatial Metrics to Control Environments 108 5.4.1 Control Maps with Isovist Area 109 5.4.2 Control Maps with Isovist Perimeter 110 5.4.3 Control Maps with Isovist Occlusivity 111 5.4.4 Control Maps with Isovist Compactness 112 5.4.5 Control Maps with Isovist Maximum Radial 113 5.4.6 Control Maps with Visual Integration 114 5.4.7 Control Maps with Relativised Visual Entropy 115 5.4.8 Control Maps with Visual Control and Visual Controllability 116 5.4.9 Conclusion 117 5.5 Processing an Environment 118 5.6 Observations and Cross Map Comparison Issues 120 5.7 Conclusions 124 Chapter 6: Interpreting Game Environments ............................................. 125 6.1 Determining Game Environments for Analysis 126 6.2 Counter-Strike: Initial Map Analysis 129 6.2.1 Professional and Amateur Maps 129 6.2.2 Spatial Metrics Across Subsets of Maps 132 6.3 Spatial Analysis of Dust2 140 6.4 Real World Analysis 145 6.4.1 Replicating a Locale 145 6.4.2 Culture in The Overall Environment 149 6.5 Asian FPS 153 6.5.1 Map Analysis 154 6.5.2 Visual Integration Method 159 6.5.3 Deeper Visibility Graph Analysis 161 6.5.4 Balance of Correlations 164 6.5.5 Asian FPS conclusions 166 6.6 Intelligible Patterns for Imageability 169 6.6.1 Statistical Distribution Patterns 169 6.6.2 Hierarchical Clustering 172 6.7 Chapter Conclusion 178 Chapter 7: Design Considerations Using Spatial Metrics ......................... 179 7.1 The Immediate Local Space. 181 7.2 Large Game Environments 183 7.3 The Pedestrian Game Space 184 vi 7.3.1 Visual Integration Across First Level Architecture 184 7.3.2 Narrow Space 189 7.3.3 Intimate Space 191 7.3.4 Prospect Space 193 7.3.5 Figure Eight 195 7.3.6 Hierarchical Classification for Design 198 7.4 Conclusions 208 Chapter 8: Conclusions ................................................................................ 209 8.1 Main Findings 209 8.1.1 Cultural Precedents for Gameplay 209 8.1.2 Culturalisation 210 8.1.3 A New Comparative Analytical Method for Game Spaces 211 8.1.4 A Method for Discussing Design Decisions 212 8.1.5 Transferring Real Environments into Game Worlds 212 8.1.5 An Analytical Method for Cultural Influence 212 8.1.6 A Multicultural Multiplayer Game Environment 214 8.1.7 Applying Spatial Patterns 214 8.2 Limitations 215 8.3 Recommendations for Further Work 216 References ..................................................................................................... 218 Glossary of Terms ......................................................................................... 228 Appendices ........................................................................................................