动 物 学 研 究 2010，Oct. 31(5)：509−515 CN 53-1040/Q ISSN 0254-5853 Zoological Research DOI：10.3724/SP.J.1141.2010.05509 Seasonal variation and synchronization of sexual behaviors in free-ranging male Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) at Huangshan, China XIA Dong-Po1,2,3, LI Jin-Hua1,2,3,*, ZHU Yong1,2,3, SUN Bing-Hua1,2,3, Lori K SHEERAN4, Megan D MATHESON5 (1. School of Life Science, Anhui University, Hefei 230039; 2. Anhui Key Laboratory for Eco-engineering and Bio-techniques, Hefei 230039; 3. Anhui Research Center of Ecological Economy, Hefei 230039; 4. Department of Anthropology, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA 98926; 5. Department of Psychology, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA 98926) Abstract: Although seasonal breeding has been documented in many non-human primates, it is not clear whether sexual behaviors show seasonal variation among male individuals. To test this hypothesis, the focal animal sampling method and continuous recording were used to investigate seasonal variation and synchronization of sexual behaviors in five male Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) at Mt. Huangshan from Oct 2005 to Sept 2006. Both copulatory and sexually motivated behaviors (i.e., sexual chase, grimace, and sexual-inspection), which were significantly higher in the mating season than non-mating season. Furthermore, seasonal variations of sexual behaviors, including copulatory and sexually motivated behaviors, were synchronized among males. The results shed light on sexual competition and tactics for reproductive success of male M. thibetana and other non-human primates with seasonal breeding. Key words: Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana); Males; Sexual behavior; Seasonal variation; Synchrony 野生雄性黄山短尾猴性行为季节性变化同步性 夏东坡1,2,3，李进华1,2,3，朱 勇1,2,3，孙丙华1,2,3，Lori K SHEERAN4，Megan D MATHESON5 （1. 安徽大学 生命科学学院, 安徽 合肥 230039；2. 安徽省生物工程与生物技术重点实验室, 安徽 合肥 230039； 3. 安徽省生态经济技术中心, 安徽 合肥 230039；4. Department of Anthropology, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA 98926； 5. Department of Psychology, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA 98926） 摘要：季节性繁殖是非人灵长类动物的普遍特征，而野生雄性个体的性行为季节性变化特点仍有待研究。该 研究于 2005 年 10 月至 2006 年 9 月对黄山短尾猴鱼鳞坑 YA2 群 5 只成年雄性个体进行全年观察，以期探讨雄性 黄山短尾猴性行为季节性变化特征。结果表明：繁殖季节交配行为和性动机行为（性追赶，做鬼脸和性检查）频 次显著高于非繁殖季节，季节性差异显著。成年雄性个体交配行为和性动机行为季节性变化呈现显著同步性。该 研究为进一步阐明短尾猴和同属季节性繁殖非人灵长类动物的雄性竞争和雄性策略提供理论依据。 关键词：短尾猴；雄性；性行为；季节性；同步性 中图分类号：Q959.848;Q958.112;Q492.4 文献标志码：A 文章编号：0254-5853-(2010)05-0509-07 Seasonal breeding (reviewed in Prendergast et al, primates (Setchell & Wickings, 2004; Li et al, 2005; 2002) and reproductive synchrony (Connor et al, 2006; Sharma et al, 2006). For these species female distribution MacFarlane & Coulson, 2005) have been well and reproductive status are the key factors for males to documented in female mammals, including non-human respond to ensure reproductive success (Bateman, 1948; Received date: 2010-01-27; Accepted date: 2010-07-29 收稿日期；2010-01-27；接受日期：2010-07-29 基金项目：国家自然科学基金（30770288；30970414）；教育部博士点基金；安徽省人才开发基金； 安徽省自然科学基金年度重点项目 *通信作者（Corresponding author），Email: [email protected] 作者简介：夏东坡（1981−），男，博士研究生，研究方向：行为生态学与分子生态学 510 Zoological Research Vol. 31 Strier, 2003; Herndon, 1983). Theoretical and empirical behaviors in Tibetan macaques. Free-ranging Tibetan studies have shown that males should attempt to fertilize macaques provide an opportunity to study seasonal as many females as possible, in part because sperm is variation of sexual behaviors in male non-human arguably the less costly gamete (Bateman, 1948; primates. This study also provides insight into the Roughgarden et al, 2006). However, high energetic and character of sexual behaviors of similar species. reproductive costs may be imposed on males through In the present study, we hypothesized that sexual sperm production (Nakatsuru & Kramer, 1982), behaviors in males show seasonal variation due to males’ ejaculations (Thomsen et al, 2006) and intermale adaption to seasonal changes in females’ sexual behavior competition. Males might maximize mating (Bateman, 1948; Strier, 2003; Herndon, 1983). The opportunities by coordinating their behaviors with following predictions should be valid: (1) copulatory females’ physiological conditions (Trivers, 1972). In behaviors show seasonal variation in male Tibetan species exhibiting multi-male grouping patterns and macaques; (2) sexually motivated behaviors should vary strong seasonal breeding cycles, the reproductive with season; (3) in order to maximize mating behaviors of males and females should be strongly opportunities and reproductive success (Lack, 1968), coordinated. There are much more sexually receptive males should exhibit synchronized sexual behaviors, females in the mating season than the non-mating season which mean all the males show sexual behaviors at the (Li, 1999; Bercovitch, 1987a; Li et al, 2005), which same period. We collected behavioral data from five hypothetically allows the males to concentrate their target males during the period from October 2005 to reproductive efforts during the mating season (also see in September 2006, to verify these predictions. time budget dilemma; Bercovitch, 1987b). It is important 1 Material and Methods for males to determine the time when sexually receptive females are available and to concentrate mating efforts at 1.1 Study site and subjects those times (Bercovitch, 1987b; Gordon & Bernstein, This study was conducted over a one-year period 1973); sexual behaviors in males are expected to show from October 2005 to September 2006 at Mt. Huangshan synchronously seasonal variation with females’ seasonal National Reserve located in Anhui Province, China. The strategies (Bateman, 1948; Strier, 2003). However, this reserve is a World Culture and Nature Heritage site that hypothesis has not been yet been tested in free-ranging is well-known as a tourist destination and research site male non-human primates. for the study of Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana). Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) live in The reserve (Mt. Huangshan) reaches an altitude of multi-male, multi-female groups with strictly linear 1,841 m above sea level, and covers an area of 154 km2 dominance hierarchies (Li, 1999). Although seasonal (Li, 1999; Li et al, 2005). Two non-human primate breeding has been the focus of considerable research in species, Macaca mulatta and M. thibetana, are found in Tibetan macaques, a number of criticisms of these this mountain reserve. The M. mulatta ranges below 600 researchers have been raised. Firstly, the occurrence of m and M.thibetana above 600 m (Wada et al, 1987). Like seasonal mating in Tibetan macaques is still debated. many other species in the genus Macaca, Tibetan Wada & Xiong (1996) demonstrated that Tibetan macaques live in multi-male/ multi-female groups. There macaques are non-seasonal mating, but further studies are several groups of Tibetan macaques found throughout manifested the seasonal mating in Tibetan macaques the reserve (Berman & Li, 2002; Xia et al, 2008b). (Xiong, 1998; Li et al, 2005). Secondly, previous studies The Tibetan macaque group of focus in the present pointed out that the mating season in Tibetan macaques study was the Yulinkeng 2 (YA2) group, which fissioned is between July and December (Xiong, 1998; Li et al, from the Yulinkeng 1(YA1) group in 1996 (Li et al, 2005), and the non-mating season is from February to 1996). These two groups are located in an area within the June (Li, 1999) in female Tibetan macaques, however, reserve known as the “Valley of the Monkeys” (N30° comparable data were not collected on males. Thirdly, 04′25.1′′/E118°08′59.3′′) characterized by the extremely male sexual behavior includes not only copulatory steep, mountainous terrain. Both groups are habituated to behavior, but also sexual effort (Zhang et al, 2010) or people and receive the modest daily provisioning of corn motivation (Wallen, 2001). Few studies have focused on by the reserve staff to maintain their presence at the the latter aspect of male sexual behavior (Gordon & designated tourists viewing sites. A detailed account of Bernstein, 1973), and no studies of sexually motivated the groups’ history and demography can be found in Li No. 5 XIA Dong-Po et al: Seasonal variation and synchronization of sexual behaviors in Tibetan macaques at Huangshan 511 (1999). digital voice recorder) were used to score copulatory and Behavioral data was collected from five adult males sexually motivated behaviors (Altmann, 1974). The order in the YA2 group throughout the one-year study. During of observation for focal animals was determined daily the study period, the group grew from 37 to 42 animals via random selection. Focal sample duration was set at and was composition of 7 adult males, 7 adult females, 20 min (Li et al, 2005; 2007). If a given focal monkey 22 subadults/juveniles, and 2 − 7 infants (5 were born could not be found at its sampling time, or was lost from during the study period). The five subject males (GBZ, view during sampling, the observer chose the next CT, YX, JT, and BL) selected for study were thoroughly monkey in order and returned to the previous monkey habituated to humans and readily distinguishable by when he reappeared (Li et al, 2005; 2007). Focal facial/body characteristics. Two other adult males were sampling yielded a total of 452 h of data and was evenly not included as subjects as one was not well habituated distributed between the mating ｛226 h [monthly Mean ± to humans and so difficult to sample, the other had lost SD = (45.2 ±2.43) h, n=5]｝ and non-mating seasons one testicle during a fight several years earlier, this likely ｛226 h [monthly Mean ± SD = (45.2±3.73) h n=5]｝ impacted his sexual behavior in unknown ways. Data collected were approximately equivalent among the 1.2 Behavioral data collection five males (range: 80−94.3 total h per male). All behavioral data were collected by a single According to the definition of the mating season in observer (Xia), during an intensive study period totally female Tibetan macaques (Xiong, 1998; Li, 1999), the 303 days from October 2005 to September 2006 (mean mating season and non-mating season are defined from =25 days/month, range=15 − 31).