Reinventing Cities for People and the Planet MOLLY O'MEARA Jane A. Peterson, Editor WORLDWATCH PAPER 147 June 1999 THE WORLDWATCH mSTITUTE is an independent, nonprofit envi- ronmental research organization in Washington, DC. Its mission is to foster a sustainable society in which human needs are met in ways that do not threaten the health of the natural environment or future generations. To this end, the Institute conducts interdisciplinary research on emerging glob- al issues, the results of which are published and disseminated to decision- makers and the media. FINANCIAL SUPPORT for the Institute is provided by the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, W. Alton Jones Foundation, Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, the Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation, David and Lucile Packard Foundation, V. Kann Rasmussen Foundation, Rockefeller Financial Services, Summit Foundation, Turner Foundation, U.N. Population Fund, Wallace Genetic Foundation, Wallace Global Fund, Weeden Foundation, and the Winslow Foundation. The Institute also receives financial support from its Council of Sponsors members-Tom and Cathy Crain, Toshishige Kurosawa, Kazuhiko Nishi, Roger and Vicki Sant, Robert Wallace, and Eckart Wintzen- and from the Friends of Worldwatch. THE WORLDWATCH PAPERS provide in-depth, quantitative and quali- tative analysis of the major issues affecting prospects for a sustainable soci- ety. The Papers are written by members of the Worldwatch Institute research staff and reviewed by experts in the field. Published in five languages, they have been used as concise and authoritative references by governments, nongovernmental organizations, and educational institutions worldwide. For a partial list of available Papers, see back pages. REPRINT AND COPYRIGHT INFORMATION for one-time academic use of this material is available by contacting Customer Service, Copyright Clearance Center, at (978) 750-8400 (phone), or (978) 750-4744 (fax), or writing to CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923. Nonacademic users should call the Worldwatch Institute's Communication Department at (202) 452-1992, x517, or fax a request to (202) 296-7365. O Worldwatch Institute, 1999 Library of Congress Catalog Number 99-071314 ISBN 1-878071-49-1 Printed on 100-percent non-chlorine bleached, partially recycled paper. Table of Contents Introduction ................................... An Urbanizing World ............................ Closing the Water and Waste Circuits ................ Toward Greater Self-Reliance in Food and Energy ....... Linking Transportation and Land Use ................ Financing the Sustainable City ..................... Building Political Strength ........................ Appendix .............................. Notes ........................................ Tables and Figures Table 1: Population of World's 10 Largest Metropolitan Areas in 1000. 1800. and 1900. with Projections for 2000 .......... Table 2: Rate and Scale of Population Growth in Selected Industrial Cities. 1875-1 900. and Developing Cities. 1975-2000 ......... Table 3: Transportation Indicators in Selected Cities. Regional Average. 1990 ............................... Figure 1: Urban Population in Industrial and Developing Regions. Selected Years ...................................... Figure 2: Annual Per Capita Car Use in Selected Cities. by Regional Average. 1970-90 .......................... Figure 3: Sources of Local Revenue. Average of Selected Cities Worldwide. 1993 ................................... Map: The World at Night. 1994-95 ........................ Map: World's Largest Cities and Most Rapidly Urbanizing Countries. 1995 .................................... The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the Worldwatch Institute; of its directors. officers. or staff; or of its funding organizations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Thanks to Peter Newman, Haynes Goddard, Rutherford Platt, and Charlotte Allen for their helpful reviews of an ear- lier incarnation of this paper. I am also indebted to Chris Calwell, Bob McNulty, David Painter, David Rain, and Don Chen for their invaluable comments on this version. And thanks to Chris Elvidge, Jeff Kenworthy, Mike Ratcliffe, Hiroichi Kawashima, and Christine Kessides for their kind help with data and information. Many at Worldwatch boosted the quality of this paper. In particular, Chris Flavin helped strengthen the drafts from start to finish, Jane Peterson wielded an expert editing pen, and David Roodman dis- patched advice from Vietnam. Lori Brown and Anne Smith unearthed countless books and datasets, and all of my fellow researchers offered feedback on an early draft. Sandra Postel supplied insight on water issues and Brian Halweil advised me on the food discussion. As the deadline neared, Payal Sampat, Gary Gardner, Brian Halweil, Seth Dunn, and Ashley Mattoon tracked down information for key calcula- tions. Hilary French and Lisa Mastny took time out for a last-minute discussion of the conclusions. Liz Doherty turned manuscript into flaw- less page proofs at breakneck speed. Dick Bell, Mary Caron, Amy Warehime, and Alison Trice did a stellar job with communications and outreach. Suzanne Clift pitched in with welcome morale boosting. And Payal Sampat and Lisa Mastny carefully proofread the final drafts. Finally, heartfelt thanks to Jim, Clare, and Megan O'Meara for their support, and to Joe Sheehan for his patience. MOLLY O'MEARA is a research associate at the Worldwatch Institute, where she studies the role of cities and information technology in solv- ing environmental problems. She is a contributing author of the Institute's annual books, State of the World and Vital Signs. And she has written for World Watch magazine on climate change, solar power, and Asia-Pacific trade. Before joining Worldwatch in 1996, she researched science and environment stories at Asahi Shimbun, one of Japan's largest daily newspapers. Molly graduated from Williams College with a degree in Biology and Asian Studies. Introduction.- - .- -- . --- .. een at night from above, cities light up the continents. A Ssatellite image of the Earth shows bright dots, the glow cast by urban centers, illuminating much of Japan, Western Europe, and the United States. Cutting across South America, a swath of darkness separates the cluster of lights at the con- tinent's northern edge from those below the Amazon Basin. Coastal China and India shine brightly, while much of Asia's interior is dark. Australia is lit only by a string of lights on its east coast and a few dots on the west coast. The outline of Africa is similarly faint, with concentrations of brightness at the northern and southern tips. Entire land masses- Greenland, Madagascar, and Papua New Guinea-do not show up at all.' City lights cover more of the planet than ever before. In 1900, only 160 million people, one tenth of the world's pop- ulation, were city dwellers. By 2006, in contrast, half the world (3.2 billion people) will be living in urban areas-a 20- fold increase-and most of the growth will occur in devel- oping countries, much of it due to the natural increase in local populations. In addition, the desperate search for employment and higher incomes will continue to propel millions of people toward the city lights as it has for a cen- tury and a half. In China alone, some 460 million people- nearly as many as now live in the United States and Indonesia combined-are expected to join the urban popu- lation by 2030.' The economic and cultural advantages of cities are impressive, but so are the environmental problems they create. REI~VLNTINGCITIES roR PEOPLE AND THE I'LA\II 6 -. - - - - - -- -- -- As early as the 1850s, when rapid industrialization made the United Kingdom the first nation in the world to house more than half of its population in cities, Charles Dickens chronicled the ills of the industrial city. "It was a town of unnatural red and black like the painted face of a savage," he wrote in his 1854 novel Hard Times. "It was a town of machines and tall chimneys, out of which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever... ." As the Industrial Revolution spread from the United Kingdom to continental Europe, then North America, and later Japan, these nations, too, became pre- dominantly urban. Booming industrial cities used vast quanti- ties of water, food, fuels, and building materials. Pollution and waste were evident every~here.~ While improvements in water and sanitation have brought pollution-related illness in industrial countries down to relatively manageable levels, industrialization in the devel- oping world in the last three decades has led to urban health problems on an unprecedented scale. Today, at least 220 mil- lion people in cities of the developing world lack clean drink- ing water, 420 million do not have access to the simplest latrines, 600 million do not have adequate shelter, and 1.1 billion choke on unhealthy levels of air pollution. Researchers estimate that air pollution in 36 large Indian cities killed some 52,000 people in 1995, a 28 percent increase from the early 1990s. China reported at least 3 million deaths from urban air pollution between 1994 and 1996. And a recent examination of 207 cities by the World Resources Institute ranked Mexico City, Beijing, Shanghai, Tehran, and Calcutta as the five worst in terms of exposing children to sul- fur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates. Just by breath- ing the air in their homes and streets, these