The London School of Economics and Political Science Nationalism in Japan’s Contemporary Foreign Policy: A Consideration of the Cases of China, North Korea, and India Maiko Kuroki A thesis submitted to the Department of International Relations of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, February 2013 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of <88,7630> words. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I can confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Josh Collins and Greg Demmons. 2 of 3 Abstract Under the Koizumi and Abe administrations, the deterioration of the Japan-China relationship and growing tension between Japan and North Korea were often interpreted as being caused by the rise of nationalism. This thesis aims to explore this question by looking at Japan’s foreign policy in the region and uncovering how political actors manipulated the concept of nationalism in foreign policy discourse. The methodology employs discourse analysis on five case studies. It will be explored how the two administrations both used nationalism but in the pursuit of contrasting policies: an uncompromising stance to China and a conciliatory approach toward North Korea under the Koizumi administration, a hard-line attitude against North Korea and the rapprochement with China by Abe, accompanied by a friendship-policy toward India. These case studies show how the nationalism is used in the competition between political leaders by articulating national identity in foreign policy. Whereas this often appears as a kind of assertiveness from outside China, in the domestic context leaders use nationalism to reconstruct Japan’s identity as a ‘peaceful nation’ through foreign policy by highlighting differences from ‘other’s or by achieving historic reconciliation. Such identity constructions are used to legitimize policy choices that are in themselves used to marginalize other policy options and political actors. In this way, nationalism is utilized as a kind of political capital in a domestic power relationship, as can be seen by Abe’s use of foreign policy to set an agenda of ‘departure from the postwar regime’. In a similar way, Koizumi’s unyielding stance against China was used to calm discontents among right-wing traditionalists who were opposed to his reconciliatory approach to Pyongyang. On the other hand, Abe also utilized a hard-line policy to the DPRK to offset his rapprochement with China whilst he sought to prevent the improved relationship from becoming a source of political capital for his rivals. The major insights of this thesis is thus to explain how Japan’s foreign policy is shaped by the attempts of its political leaders to manipulate nationalism so as articulating particular forms of national identity that enable them to achieve legitimacy for their policy agendas, boost domestic credentials and marginalize their political rivals. 3 of 3 Table of Contents Declaration pp.2 Abstract pp.3 Table of Contents pp.4 Chapter 1. Introduction pp.9 1.1 Introduction pp.9 1.2 Conventional explanations of nationalism in the study of Japan’s foreign policy pp.11 1.2.1 Studies on Japan’s foreign policy within IR theory pp.12 1.2.2 Studies on Japan’s nationalism pp.15 1.3 Nationalism and foreign policy in the subject of IR pp.20 1.4 Alternative Conceptual Framework on Foreign Policy pp.24 1.5 Research Questions pp.30 1.6 Hypotheses pp.31 1.7 The Selection of Case Studies pp.35 1.8 Methodology pp.39 1.9 Chapter Outline pp.46 Chapter 2. Political History of Postwar Japan and Factional Politics pp.50 2.1 The division between the progressives and the conservatives pp.53 2.2 The sub-division among the conservatives: mainstream versus anti-mainstream pp.59 2.2.1 The Division between the Yoshida Line and anti-mainstream on the security issue pp.60 2.2.2 The Division between the Yoshida Line and the anti-mainstream on the history issue until the 1980s pp.62 2.2.3 The Division between the Yoshida Line and the anti-mainstream on the history issue in the 1990s pp.66 2.2.3.1 The strategy of historic reconciliation pp.67 2.2.3.2 The rise of ‘neo-revisionism pp.74 2.3 Factional politics within the LDP pp.78 2.4 Koizumi and Abe in factional politic pp.85 4 2.5 Conclusion pp.89 Chapter 3. Case Study 1: Nationalism and Foreign Policy toward China under the Koizumi administration pp.91 3.1 Conventional explanation of the Yasukuni Shrine issue pp.93 3.1.1 Chronology pp.93 3.1.2 The rise of nationalism in Japanese society pp.94 3.1.3 domestic political factor pp.95 3.2 The division on the Yasukuni Shrine issue in the Parliament pp.97 3.2.1 Background of the issue pp.98 3.2.2 Discourse of the opponents against the prime ministerial visit to the Yasukuni Shrine pp.99 3.2.3 Discourse of the supporters of the prime ministerial visit to the Yasukuni Shrine pp.100 3.3 Discourse analysis of Koizumi’s argument pp.102 3.3.1 Commonalities and differences of the two groups pp.104 3.3.1.1 Perception of history pp.104 3.3.1.2 Perception to China pp.106 3.3.2 The link between the visit to the Yasukuni Shrine and Japan’s ‘peace country’ identity pp.107 3. 4 Construction of national identity in foreign policy discourses pp.109 3.4.1 The Representation of Japan’s Identity in China’s criticism pp.110 3.4.2 The Reconstruction of Japan’s identity in Koizumi’s policy toward China pp.111 3.4.3 The Reproduction of China’s identity in Koizumi’s policy toward China pp.113 3.5 The construction of reality pp.117 3.6 The legitimization of Koizumi’s policy toward China pp.122 3.7 Conclusion pp.125 Chapter 4. Case Study 2: Nationalism and Foreign Policy toward North Korea under the Koizumi administration pp.128 4.1 The divisions on the North Korea issue in the Parliament pp.130 5 4.1.1 The Dialogue School pp.130 4.1.2 The Pressure school pp.131 4.2 Koizumi’s policy toward North Korea pp.132 4.2.1 The policy for diplomatic normalization pp.132 4.2.2 Emphasis on dialogue pp.134 4.2.3 The Pyongyang Declaration and the ‘comprehensive approach’ pp.136 4.3 The construction of national identity in foreign policy discourse pp.138 4.3.1 The constructions of North Korea in the dialogue school discourse pp.139 4.3.2 The construction of Japan’s identity and differences from the pressure school pp.141 4.4 The construction of a ‘reality’ pp.146 4.5 The legitimization of policy pp.148 4.5.1 Normalization pp.149 4.5.2 Emphasis on dialogues pp.155 4.5.3 Conciliatory approach pp.156 4.6 North Korean issue as political capital pp.158 4.7 Conclusion pp.160 Chapter 5. Analysis of the post-2000 ‘neo-revisionist’ Discourse pp.162 5.1 Historical context pp.164 5.2 Basic arguments pp.164 5.2.1 The Constitution pp.165 5.2.2 Pacifism pp.167 5.2.3 The History verdict of the Tokyo Tribunal pp.168 5.2.4 The Yoshida Line pp.170 5.2.5 Postwar democracy pp.173 5.3 Key concepts and Identity Construction pp.178 5.3.1 Peace pp.178 5.3.2 Democracy pp.182 5.3.3 Independence/autonomy pp.187 5.4 The construction of domestic ‘Others’ pp.190 6 5.5 Conclusion pp.194 Chapter 6. Case Study 3 and 4: Nationalism and Foreign Policy toward China and North Korea under the Abe administration pp.196 6.1 China Policy pp.198 6.1.1 Chronology pp.198 6.1.2 Background of Abe’s rapprochement with China pp.199 6.1.3 The Rapprochement with China as Political Capital pp.200 6.1.4 Obstacles to the rapprochement pp.203 6.1.5 Identity Construction and policy legitimization pp.204 6.1.5.1 Abe’s shift from a past anti-Chinese stance to a more moderate stance pp.204 6.1.5.2 Easing the frustration among Abe’s anti-Chinese supporters pp.206 6.1.5.3 The Yasukuni Shrine issue and social antagonism pp.210 6.1.6 Conclusion pp.215 6.2. Policy toward North Korea pp.216 6.2.1 Chronology pp.217 6.2.2 Background of Abe’s hard-line policy pp.219 6.2.2.1 North Korea’s provocation pp.219 6.2.2.2 Personnel Affairs pp.220 6.2.2.3 High Popularity and political capital pp.221 6.2.3 Identity constructions: 3 binary oppositions pp.222 6.2.3.1 Japan and North Korea: construction of external radical ‘other’ pp.223 6.2.3.2 ‘Postwar regime’ and ideal Japan pp.231 6.2.3.3 political Rivalry in domestic politics pp.233 6.3 Conclusion pp.237 Chapter 7.