THE APPLICATION of INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW to UNRECOGNISED ENTITIES: the CASE of TAIWAN Pei-Lun Tsai, LLM Thesis Submitt

THE APPLICATION of INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW to UNRECOGNISED ENTITIES: the CASE of TAIWAN Pei-Lun Tsai, LLM Thesis Submitt

THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW TO UNRECOGNISED ENTITIES: THE CASE OF TAIWAN Pei-Lun Tsai, LLM Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2015 ABSTRACT Traditionally, only States are considered as duty-bearers under international human rights law. Fundamental human rights guarantees have been conceived as standards of legal protection for individuals against the abuse of States. However, with the emergence of various non-State actors, States are no longer the only entities who may interfere with the enjoyment of human rights. The obligations of certain categories non- State actors under international human rights law have been much studied, but the application of international human rights law to “unrecognised entities”, who fulfil the traditional criteria of statehood and have achieved de facto independence but are not generally recognised as States by the international community, have received relatively limited scholarly attention. This thesis aims to fill this gap and examine whether existing rules of international human rights law, especially those concerning non- State actors, provide any basis for such application. Special emphasis will be placed on the Republic of China (ROC, Taiwan) as an example of an unrecognised entity. From the birth of the United Nations, the ROC government participated in human rights-related work within the organisation. Yet, after the adoption of General Assembly Resolution 2758, which recognised the representatives of the government of the People’s Republic of China as the lawful representatives of China, the ROC’s signatures and ratifications of international treaties are no longer recognised, and Taiwan’s recent attempts to ratify/accede to international human rights treaties have been unsuccessful. Questions arise whether Taiwan is bound by these treaties and non-treaty rules of international human rights law. It is envisaged that an examination of theories and practice regarding the application of international human rights law to unrecognised entities will inform the case study of Taiwan and contribute to the development of arguments justifying the application of international human rights law to Taiwan. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Professors Sangeeta Shah and Sandesh Sivakumaran, whose guidance and support are indispensable for the completion of this thesis. Their expertise, advice, and patience have helped me tremendously in the process, and I have greatly benefited from our stimulating discussions and their invaluable insights. I am also indebted to Professor Michael O’Flaherty, my former supervisor, for inspiring me to tackle this challenging topic in the first place and for offering constant encouragement even after his departure from the university. Special thanks are due to Professor Chun-i Chen, my first teacher of international law and in many ways my tutor in life. I am also grateful for my PhD colleagues and dear friends, particularly Budiman, Juf, Mehmet, On, Stephenson, Wei-Jhong, and Yiwei, who have essentially become my second family and whose comradery has helped me through some difficult times. The scholarship from the Ministry of Education, Republic of China (Taiwan), is acknowledged and much appreciated. What I have accomplished in this thesis and as a researcher would not have been possible without the unwavering and unconditional support and understanding of my family. For this I remain eternally grateful. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ........................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ......................................................................... ii Table of Contents ........................................................................... iii Table of Cases .............................................................................. viii Table of Instruments ................................................................... xiii Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................. 1 I. Background............................................................................. 1 II. Scope and Aim of the Thesis ...................................................... 4 A. Scope ................................................................................. 4 1. The Doctrine of Sources of International Law .................................. 5 2. Categorisation of Sources Adopted in the Thesis ............................ 8 B. Research Questions ............................................................... 9 III. Methodology and Structure ..................................................... 11 Chapter 2: International Legal Personality, Statehood, and Recognition: The Notion of Unrecognised Entities ........................ 16 I. Introduction .......................................................................... 16 II. Statehood and Recognition ...................................................... 19 A. Criteria of Statehood ........................................................... 19 1. Traditional Criteria of Statehood ....................................................... 19 a. Permanent Population .................................................... 21 b. Defined Territory .......................................................... 22 c. Government ................................................................. 23 d. Capacity to Enter into Relations with other States .............. 24 2. Other Criteria of Statehood ................................................................ 25 a. Independence .............................................................. 25 b. Permanence or Stability ................................................. 27 c. Willingness and Ability to Observe International Law .......... 27 d. Legality of Establishment ............................................... 29 e. Self-Determination ........................................................ 32 f. Recognition .................................................................. 33 B. Recognition: Theories and Effect ........................................... 33 1. Recognition in General ........................................................................ 33 2. Theories of Recognition....................................................................... 35 3. Legal Effect of Recognition ................................................................. 36 III. Defining “Unrecognised Entities” .............................................. 37 iii A. Conceptualising “Unrecognised Entities” ................................. 37 B. Criteria of “Unrecognised Entities” ......................................... 40 1. Traditional Criteria of Statehood ....................................................... 41 2. De Facto Independence ...................................................................... 44 3. Lack of General Recognition .............................................................. 49 C. Criteria Excluded from the Definition of “Unrecognised Entities” ........................................................................................ 53 IV. Conclusion ............................................................................ 55 Chapter 3: International Human Rights Treaties and Unrecognised Entities ......................................................................................... 57 I. Introduction .......................................................................... 57 II. Treaty-Making Capacity under International Law ........................ 61 A. Treaty-Making Capacity of States .......................................... 64 1. Recognition of the Treaty-Making Capacity of States .................. 65 2. Rationale behind Recognising the Treaty-Making Capacity of States .............................................................................................................. 67 3. The Notion of a “State” ....................................................................... 68 4. The Special Case of the Holy See ..................................................... 70 5. Members of a Federal Union .............................................................. 71 6. The Issue of Dependent States ......................................................... 73 B. Treaty-Making Capacity of International Organisations ............. 73 1. Recognition of the Treaty-Making Capacity of International Organisations ................................................................................................ 73 2. Rationale behind Granting Treaty-Making Capacity to International Organisations ....................................................................... 78 C. Treaty-Making Capacity of Insurgents .................................... 82 1. Recognition of Treaty-Making Capacity of Insurgents ................. 82 2. Rationale behind Granting Treaty-Making Capacity to Insurgents ................................................................................................................. 88 D. Treaty-Making Capacity of other International Entities .............. 89 1. National Liberation Movements ......................................................... 89 2. Entities Created to Administer Territories ...................................... 91 III. The Capacity of Unrecognised Entities to Conclude or Participate in International Human Rights Treaties ............................................... 93 A. Rationale

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