Fraternalism in America Book Review Essay by William Weisberger • Constructing Brotherhood: fascinating chapters on the ritual eighteenth century ethical teachings. Class, Gender, and and ceremonial activities of major As an example, Clawson uses the Fraternalism secret societies in Victorian Ameri- Modern Grand Lodge of London, ca, shows how these orders func- which,created in1717, had capable Mary by Ann Clawson tioned during the past two centu- administrators, recruited aristocrat- Princeton: Princeton University Press, ries. icand middle -class members intoits 1989. Pp. ix,270. Introduction, locallodges, and became wellknown notes, index. $27.50 Clawson begins her workbyview- ing fraternalism as a social form; she for promoting sociability through Secret Ritual and Manhood argues that the Masons, the Odd these lodges, which were closely as- in Victorian America Fellows, and the Knights effectively sociated with London coffeehouses by Mark C. Carnes used ritual and ceremony as a "social and tavern life. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, metaphor" of brotherhood. Each Like Professor Margaret Jacob 1989. Pp. x, 226. Preface, notes, order's doctrine emphasized capi- and this writer, Clawson in several $27.50 index. talism, competition and individual- ways accentuates the intimate con- ism,and Clawson demonstrates that nections between Speculative Free- lodge activities were geared to pro- masonry, or the Modern Grand and female or- moting patriarchal values and mas- Lodge, and the Enlightenment. To ders and voluntary associa- culine cultural tenets. this end, there are impressive ac- FRATERNALtions have had a significant In the "European Definitions" counts ofthe contributions by John place inAmerican life.Scholars, un- section early in the book, Clawson T.Desaguliers, a Huguenot minis- fortunately, have devoted minimal claims that familyand fraternal lifein ter, a disciple ofSir Isaac Newton, attention to their functions, activi- medieval and early modern Europe and an active member of the Royal ties, and histories. The studies by revolved around concepts of "kin- Society ofLondon. Clawson shows Clawson and Carnes, despite the ship." This model applied not only the role ofDesaguliers, whose influ- passage of nearly four years since to the patriarchal family unit, in- ence on the rites of this new order their release, are pioneering and com- cluding servants, but also to volun- show up inmechanistic and materi- parative works of great importance. taryassociations. To acquire the skills alistic doctrines from Newtonian Clawson advances the theses that of their craft, journeymen were ex- science, tenets and symbols from fraternal organizations in America posed toritual practiced by specific classical architecture, and concepts are indebted inmany respects to the crafts and their associations. Claw- associated with deism and republi- ritualistic and institutional opera- son claims that fraternalism became canism. Under Desaguliers, grand tions ofSpeculative Freemasonry and especially prevalent among trade master ofthe London Grand Lodge, that women's and some religious guilds, whose leaders were.involved Speculative Freemasonry during the groups arose during the nineteenth withgovernance, taught production first half of the eighteenth century and twentieth centuries to protest techniques, and used ritual to ex- became well established and identi- against their private operations. In plain the craft's central doctrines fied with important Enlightenment seven insightful, topically arranged and customs to promote a sense of institutions and elites in England, chapters, Clawson examines the solidarity among members. Europe, and America. Masons, the Odd Fellows, and Speculative Freemasonry, which Inthe second part of the book, Knights of Pythias; she also assesses used some teachings, doctrines, and "American Transformations," Claw- the place oftheir related female aux- symbols of the operative lodges, son attempts to illustrate how Free- iliaries. Carnes, meanwhile, in five emerged during the eighteenth cen- masonry served as a paradigm for William Weisberger, a professor ofhis- tury as a dynamic neworganization. other secret orders in this country. as tory at Butler County Community Col- This form of Masonry, Clawson Such organizations the Knights of lege and an adjunct professor at the maintains inchapter two,succeeded Pythias, Odd Fellows, and Modern University ofPittsburgh, is a frequent by using its rites to promote major Woodmen of America seemed to contributor to Pittsburgh History. scientific and political doctrines and copy the institutional development 39 Pittsburgh History Spring 1993 model of many Masonic lodges, ic sentiment, which began with the and activities not female indepen- which were governed by a constitu- alleged murder of WilliamMorgan dence but rather the importance of tion and elected officers, recruited in 1826 by Masons for divulging familylifeand traditional female roles members, and promoted collectiv- secrets of the order. Such sentiment init. ism and individualism by conferring blossomed into a powerful anti-elit- Chapter seven explores brother- degrees. (The degrees or rites of ist and socio-political reform move- hood as big business. Printers, sell- these organizations convey major ers offraternal attire, and even indi- doctrines and symbols of the order Fraternals viduals selling memberships stood and are staged inlocal lodges. These to gain. Many physicians, lawyers, bodies, in turn, operate under the excluded minority merchants, and insurance salesmen jurisdictions of the respective frater- groups from used their fraternal ties to recruit nal order.) clients and customers. Even ritual Clawson also examines the class membership, yet became a marketable commodity, composition ofmajor American fra- since many orders invented degrees ternal orders. Analyzing the rosters promoted in the last years of the nineteenth ofnineteenth century Pythian lodg- century to enlist new members. As es in Belleville, 111., and Buffalo in integrity, honesty, Clawson explains, fraternalism waned light ofcertain categories and net- and pride in craft. inthe first two decades ofthe twen- works, and by developing a socio- tieth century, due to lost interest in logical concept of"catnets," she finds ment in most states, fostering cam- ritualism,and the appearance ofother that both lodges had working- and paigns against the Masons' secretive institutions for socializing and kin- middle-class members. Her split find- and ritualistic activities and their ship relations. Later in the century, ings emphasize the need for exten- purported domination of political therise ofmass media and new forms sive research along these lines. and economic institutions. Many ofentertainment became reasons for Chapter four examines activities lodges were forced to close their decline as well. and patterns of fraternal orders in doors through the mid- 1840s, al- Inher conclusion, Clawson claims nineteenth century America. There though Masonry did enjoy a revival that Masonic ritual and lodge orga- were twoprevalent kinds offraternal before the CivilWar. Other fraternal nization served as the basis offrater- organizations: the mutual benefit or societies (the Elks, the Ancient Or- nalism inAmerica. Fraternal organi- benevolent society and the Mason- der ofUnited Workmen, the Mod- zations arising in this country dur- ic-styled order which stressed the ern Woodmen of America, and the ing the nineteenth century, she finds, place of ritualism and cross-class Shriners) grew in importance with promoted interaction among classes membership. The Independent Or- the rise of industrialism, helping to and between genders, to a certain der ofOddFellows, which started in shape craft unionism in America. extent, as well as republican, capital- England during the late eighteenth Fraternal orders, Clawson posits, istic, and middle-class values. century and appeared in Baltimore improved the social environment of Through ritual and lodge activities, in 1819, was a ritual order closely industrialism by advocating a work- these orders tried to bond middle- associated with tavern life in both place morality ofintegrity, honesty, and working-class members into a British and American cities and and sobriety. Clawson also address- solidified community. towns. Under the leadership ofJames es these groups' tendencies to ex- This work has much to recom- Ridgeley and George Norris, Odd clude blacks, Catholics, and non- mend it,offering a fine macro-view Fellowship in America during the native whites from membership. of fraternalism and a closely rea- 1830s and 1840s changed greatly. Inchapter six, Clawson devotes soned comparative sociological anal- Clawson notes that American ad- attention to women's organizations ysis ofa subject greatly neglected in herents promoted temperance, de- inAmerican life.She states that Free- scholarship. While Clawson draws veloped new degrees, and established masonry, the Odd Fellows, and oth- extensively on primary materials, it a middle -class base. er orders, indenying membership to suffers from repetition and inade- Comparing American Odd Fel- women, promoted masculine supe- quate explanation ofritualand lodge lowship to Masonry during the first riority and cultural values. One re- activities. halfofthe nineteenth century, Claw- sult of the anti-Masonic movement, In those realms where Clawson's son finds both were constrained to however, was the establishment of book is weak, Carnes's workis strong. change. Masonry sought newmem-