ROOTED IN ALL ITS STORY, MORE IS MEANT THAN MEETS THE EAR: A STUDY OF THE RELATIONAL AND REVELATIONAL NATURE OF GEORGE MACDONALD’S MYTHOPOEIC ART Kirstin Jeffrey Johnson A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St. Andrews 2011 Full metadata for this item is available in Research@StAndrews:FullText at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/1887 This item is protected by original copyright This item is licensed under a Creative Commons License University of St Andrews Rooted in all its Story, More is Meant than Meets the Ear: A Study of the Relational and Revelational Nature of George MacDonald’s Mythopoeic Art Kirstin Jeffrey Johnson A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Divinity In Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy St Mary’s College St Andrews, Scotland September 2010 ii Abstract Scholars and storytellers alike have deemed George MacDonald a great mythopoeic writer, an exemplar of the art. Examination of this accolade by those who first applied it to him proves it profoundly theological: for them a mythopoeic tale was a relational medium through which transformation might occur, transcending boundaries of time and space. The implications challenge much contemporary critical study of MacDonald, for they demand that his literary life and his theological life cannot be divorced if either is to be adequately assessed. Yet they prove consistent with the critical methodology MacDonald himself models and promotes. Utilizing MacDonald’s relational methodology evinces his intentional facilitating of Mythopoesis. It also reveals how oversights have impeded critical readings both of MacDonald’s writing and of his character. It evokes a redressing of MacDonald’s relationship with his Scottish cultural, theological, and familial environment – of how his writing is a response that rises out of these, rather than, as has so often been asserted, a mere reaction against them. Consequently it becomes evident that key relationships, both literary and personal, have been neglected in MacDonald scholarship – relationships that confirm MacDonald’s convictions and inform his writing, and the examination of which restores his identity as a literature scholar. Of particular relational import in this reassessment is A.J. Scott, a Scottish visionary intentionally chosen by MacDonald to mentor him in a holistic Weltanschauung. Little has been written on Scott, yet not only was he MacDonald’s prime influence in adulthood, but he forged the literary vocation that became MacDonald’s own. Previously unexamined personal and textual engagement with John Ruskin enables entirely new readings of standard MacDonald texts, as does the textual engagement with Matthew Arnold and F.D. Maurice. These close readings, informed by the established context, demonstrate MacDonald’s emergence, practice, and intent as a mythopoeic writer. iii iv Declarations I, Kirstin Jeffrey Johnson, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 115,000 words in length, has been written by me, that it is a record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. I was admitted as a research student in January, 2002, and as a candidate for the degree of Ph.D in October, 2004; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2002 and 2010. Date Signature of Candidate I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions for the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of Ph.D in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for this degree. Date Signature of Supervisor In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews we understand that we are giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. We also understand that the title and the abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker, that my thesis will be electronically accessible for personal or research use unless exempt by award of an embargo as requested below, and that the library has the right to migrate my thesis into new electronic forms as required to ensure continued access to the thesis. We have obtained any third-party copyright permissions that may be required in order to allow such access and migration, or have requested the appropriate embargo below. The following is an agreed request by candidate and supervisor regarding the electronic publication of this thesis: Access to printed copy and electronic publication of thesis through the University of St Andrews. Date Signature of Supervisor Date Signature of Candidate v vi Acknowledgements Any work arises from the contributions of many people, and this particular work is truly a relational effort. More have shaped and carried me along this journey than I could possibly name. With each name I do mention is encompassed a whole community: spouses, children, siblings, friends – in Scotland, England, France, Canada, the United States, and beyond. Active research for this thesis began not long after the new millennium, drawn out by health, circumstance, and the general state of being human. But its roots go much further back. They are familial and environmental: my mother’s faithful reading at bedtime, my father’s encouragement of the love of literature, my step-mother introducing me to a princess and some goblins, my step-father helping enable my education and also being eager to learn more about it, my siblings keenly sharing a love of good Story and particularly that quirky genre, Fantasy; also, long ago, a school-bus driver who took my eight year old interest in Tolkien seriously, and discussed symbolism and literary intent when my school teachers thought I was faking my reading list; rural neighbours who proved to me that education and wisdom stretched far beyond the realms of the classroom, as did a love and grasp of literature and Story; the incalculable gift of being able to read, play, and labour in the great and unrestricted out-of-doors once inhabited by my predecessors. Despite recurrent self-doubt, I was encouraged forward by fellow lovers of Story, of critical and rebellious thinking, and of the praxis of faith: those such as Katherine Woodman, Loren & Mary Ruth Wilkinson, Maxine Hancock, Christopher Mitchell, Robert Trexler. Kerry Dearborn directed my first intentional study of MacDonald, and was the first to encourage me to publish in the field – her lived example as a professor continues to be a beacon. Michael Ward enabled my first MacDonald lecture, at which Jerry Root gave words of affirmation that I have never forgotten (nor his ability to mouth along every quotation). Colin Manlove spurred me on with his comment that “it’d be a great thing to do, if you could do it,” and with his warning to not let certain challenges “get to me.” I am particularly grateful for his model as a humble academic – willing and wanting to keep learning. Bruce Hindmarsh was another model of scholarly engagement, freely sharing abundant material with a stranger. I thank Stephen Prickett for his contagious enthusiasm and shared love of integrative learning, and the rest of the George MacDonald Society for their years of encouragement and support – most especially Rodger Bardet, John Docherty, Richard Lines, and Mike Partridge. I also appreciate the efforts of two women outside of the academy who have spent many years quietly urging a more thorough understanding of MacDonald: Barbara Amell and Marilylle Soveran. Very practically, far too many to name have generously carved out workspaces for me over the years. Just as many have helped in taking notes, transporting books, photocopying, typing, and editing when health impeded my abilities. Some of these learned far more about MacDonald than they ever intended, and sharpened my own thinking and writing in the process: Janice Deary, Kathryn Gatewood, Julie Guthrie, Amy Kettwig Jeffrey, Julie Khovacs, Karen Murphy, Gina Prokopchuk, and David Wilhite. Special thanks is proffered to my colleagues in MacDonald studies, Thomas Gerold, Rachel Johnson, Gisela Kreglinger, Caroline Kelly, Jennifer Koopman, Jeff McInnis, Ferdinand Soto, and Jennifer Trafton, all of whom have encouraged, challenged, and taught me, and have proven Chesterton right in that the time for MacDonald was yet to come. Gisela and Jeff both cared for me far beyond the realm of colleague-dom, and the recordings of MacDonald’s short stories that Jeff made during a season when I was unable to read should really reside in an archive. Jennifer T. gave me confidence in the world of publication, and raised the bar of good editing almost unattainably high. With a humble gratitude to and admiration for the scholars upon whose work all we build, with whom we converse, and through whom we seek to better understand the works and the person of George MacDonald: Long may the conversation continue. At ITIA and St. Andrews University many others who delighted in truth and learning carried me in body, spirit, and soul. Keen to engage intellectually, and even willing to bear with yet another reference to MacDonald, many helped in very practical ways when poor health was impeding. This thesis would not exist were it not for that community – most especially the contributions of Cindy Burris, Julie Canlis, Keith Hyde, Sharon Jebb, Matt Jensen, Kristen Deedee Johnson, Ivan Khovacs, Duffy Lott, Jennifer Hess Mouat, Marilee Newell, Stephen Prokopchuk, Chelle Stearns, Alan Torrance.