Copyright by Cristina Herencia 2006 The Dissertation Committee for Cristina Herencia Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: THE NATIVE ANDEAN GENDER SYSTEM: THREE INTERPRETIVE ESSAYS Committee: Henry Dietz, Supervisor Bryan Roberts Brian Stross Pauline Stross Harry Cleaver The Native Andean Gender System: Three Interpretive Essays by Cristina Herencia B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin December 2006 Dedication To my mother Carmela and my daughter Estefanía, whose lives are woven in this work. To Salvador Herencia Medina, my father, who offered his life for the right of Ayllus in Provincia 2 de Mayo, Huánuco, to keep their ancestral lands. To my American sister Bobsy Draper: it takes a pure heart to envision the Northern Eagle and Southern Condor embrace to secure a shared future. To Mallku Richard Schaedel, who took me under his wings as his last student -- for his love of past and present Andean and native peoples, keeping in sight the World’s people. To John Murra, who more than once protected and encouraged my call and flight, as his own awakened at first sight of Pachamama in the Andes. To Amauta Virgilio Roel Pineda who gave unfailingly profound, sensitive, and tender advice. To Martha Hardman de Bautista, whose commitment and clarity about gender in the Andes, inspired and sustained me through the years. Acknowledgements This work condenses efforts, concerns and collaboration in different disciplines over three decades. To simplify, I will present my due thanks for each study in the dissertation, in succession. Then I will recognize the more general theoretical, formal and practical contributions to the overall product. Study 1, the socio-anthropological study in Pueblo Joven M. M., years ago, owes a lot to British social anthropologist Peter C. Lloyd. He introduced me to field methods, practical concepts and the logic of his discipline, a most illuminating experience after an exclusive training in experimental psychology that lacked a social, cultural and historical context. Peruvian anthropologist Luis Millones facilitated our encounter, one of a Bristish scholar in search of a Spanish-English bilingual assistant, in social sciences training, with a qualified Peruvian looking for a practical immersion in social research in Peru. To both go my thanks and friendship through the years. The dignity and grace of the M.M. residents themselves, while sharing their lives with us, gave substance, in facts and details, in content and form, to the direction my life had already taken. Here, a personal recognition to the community in the leadership provided by Mallku Sr. Laura, perfectly balanced by his wife, Sra. Hermelinda, to symbolize my thanks to the whole community. They represent the Andean value stand on which their children, as well as other people in M.M. and similar shanty town communities, can have - in the words of Javier Lajo - a Qhapac Ňan (the righteous, correct way) to traverse from past to future times. v Study 2 involved a symbolic ascent to the high Andes and high Andean history of pre-modern Peru and Andean area. Bobsy Draper financed the semester in which I carried out the basic research. Her intuition matched that of my main advisor, Dr. Richard Schaedel, in her unlimited love for native peoples and her sensitivity for the timeless, good and valuable. In the process, she could not get enough of the details, and for my own benefit, I reported my findings to her every step of the way, the way an award- winning journalist would demand clear, meaningful facts. To get, at the end, her satisfied comment: “You made it, Nina, you have arrived where you needed to be,” still encourages me. She knew we had culminated the ascent and what was left was to follow up theoretical and practical implications. For this historical study and other work on gender in the Andes, if Martha Hardman de Bautista had not passionately backed my hunch, when we met earlier, I would have had less strength. The inspiration that her status as a fully-established US researcher and woman co-founder of Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, in amiable and equal collaboration between U.S. and Peruvian scholars (e.g., Luis E. Valcárcel, John Murra, Virgilio Roel, Richard Schaedel, et al.), was invaluable. The transcendence of the Great Andean Rebellion was clear to my advisor, Dr. Richard Schaedel. He immediately recognized it and suggested I put aside everything else to concentrate on it. The empathy of Professor Harry Cleaver to the topic and objectives of that research in spring 1999, contributed greatly. Finally, it was Professor Sandra Lauderdale Graham who made the daring and marvelous suggestion that I assumed that topic as a project in her history course: “Towards a gender reconstruction of social history of Latin America.” She, and vi the small group of young and brilliant classmates in that seminar, not only opened the door to critically explore the history of gender in Latin America, but was my first exposure to the making of the discipline, to incorporating time in society and culture, to the treasure of archives and old records! Study 3, the last, on gender in the Indigenous movement of the Andes today, also has its own debts. The first is to Dr. Schaedel’s encouragement and inspiration to the very end of his life, when he learned I would be observing the sessions of the Permanent Forum of Indigenous Peoples of the World at the United Nations. He knew natives were finally on the brink of having their history and culture back in their hands. In that perspective, the sacrifice of our almost-approved “Andean Studies Center”at LLILAS for an “Indigenous Peoples of the Americas Center,” which Schaedel proposed to serve their research needs and analogous human riches and wisdom in the continent and further, that cost me the funding for my studies, made sense. My thanks are also to the Americas’ Indigenous Women’s Network, through hermanita Rosalía Gonsalez, who extended to me the invitation to attend the UN as an observer in three consecutive sessions. My participation in their caucus, and in the Latin American Indigenous People’s Caucus, made it possible to substantiate the hypothetical proposals of study 3, dealing with present trends in the indigenous movements in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador. The enthusiastic understanding and collaboration from their personal research money by Drs. Pauline Strong and Sam Wilson of anthropology, counted enormously. Trusted scholar- friend of Dr. Schaedel, Dr. Bryan Roberts, consistently contributed to expenses in the meeting for three years. vii The sum and articulation of all three studies and the support to get it all done are all due to the kindest determination of my present dissertation advisor, Dr. Henry Dietz. I benefited from his love to Peru in a congenial and supportive collaboration through the complexities of university bureaucracy. It was not easy to inherit the direction of a project in a complex assortment of disciplines and broad scope of interests of an often discouraged student. His own input in clarifying and simplifying language and later supporting an editor to correct non-native mistakes in wording of arguments and proposals in the dissertation are eternally thanked. My invaluable editor-friend Jude Filler’s keen intelligence, her perceptiveness of the poetic and profound, and her humanity were at hand when those qualities were needed. Yet, even in that she was tested: emigrating from this house of learning owes much to her simply pushing to get the job done. Perennially, I enjoyed the best of the supportive, empathetic, intelligent role that Academic Secretary of LLILAS, Ann Dibble, provides to generations of students. At home, Andean thinkers, Dr. Virgilio Roel Pineda, Ramiro Reynaga and Javier Lajo, cradled my own woman quests concerning our common ancestry. Friends for years, their three superb intelligences supported with non-condescending affection my perspective. On the contrary, they demanded its expression to aid our people’s reconstruction of own historical path. Throughout my time in Austin, the informal and yet vital collaboration of friends with advice and sheer faith, and gifts, sustained me. Professors Mercedes De Uriarte, Katherine Arens, Linda Golden, Cristina Martinez provided mentor-sister protection here at UT, and, from further away, visionary sociologist Carol Andreas, prematurely dead in December 2005, did so too. A Third World visiting scholar predicament was well understood by friends Gisela Jung, Patricia viii Bluett, Margaret and Heinz Aeshback, Father Bill of Our Lady of Guadalupe Church, Rick and Barbara Botts, and Reagan Courtney of TBC, Josefina Castillo of AFSC- Austin. The Mexican American Center at UT was in the informal and academic always supportive and solidarious. Patrick Owen inscribed the graphics in audio-visual aids and text like magic in work quality, precise detail and intelligence of design. Bob Penman’s congenial, helpful, relaxed and effective assistance with format details, and in dissertation uploading... Was he placed in ITS for that purpose?? On domestic grounds, the love of flowers and mountains of my ninety-four year old next-door neighbor, Didi, pointed to beauty independent of our making, and to strength to ascend what is grand. Ramon, from Chile, accompanied me as a relative of heart, sensitivity and mind. All throughout, Dreamgroup, an Austin invention of scholarship on the soul and sensitivity, for shared support in viewing the immediate and the remote, the ordinary and the miraculous, the local and the global, was again, an Austin-style family. Finally, Sharon Hinderer and Susy Schultz, realized for me in our weekly meetings the promise of unfailing, constant and sober devotion to address the transcendental in prayer, like warriors guarding the doors,.