Muslim female clothing practices: An exploratory study of ancient and modern perceptions by Latifah Abdulgani Abdulrahman Bin Nafisah A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MA (Ancient Culture Studies) in the Department of Ancient Languages and Cultures at the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES SUPERVISOR: Prof. G.T.M. Prinsloo CO-SUPERVISOR: Prof. C.E. Prinsloo September 2015 i UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES RESEARCH PROPOSAL & ETHICS COMMITTEE DECLARATION Full name : Latifah Abdulgani AbdulRahman Bin Nafisah Student Number : 12258212 Degree/Qualification: MA (Ancient Culture Studies) Title of thesis/dissertation/mini-dissertation: Muslim female clothing practices: An exploratory study of ancient and modern perceptions I declare that this thesis / dissertation / mini-dissertation is my own original work. Where secondary material is used, this has been carefully acknowledged and referenced in accordance with university requirements. I understand what plagiarism is and am aware of university policy and implications in this regard. 2015/09/07 SIGNATURE DATE i Acknowledgements First of all, and most importantly, I thank Allah that He has assisted me with His virtue and magnanimity during my research and upon the completion of my thesis. I ask Allah for His mercy and compassion, and that He would accept my humble efforts on the day that I meet Him. is reported to have said, "he who does not thank man (ﷺ) The Prophet Mohammed has not thanked Allah.” With these words in mind, I am grateful to the following people: My most sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Prof Gert Prinsloo, who has spent so much time and effort leading and assisting me. Also to my co-supervisor, Prof Reineth Prinsloo, who has showered me with her assistance and generosity. To my parents, Shikh Abdulgani bin Nafisah and Mrs Nora Al Sultan, who have nurtured me, and for their tireless support and encouragement in my efforts to further my education. May Allah place my father in the highest stage of Jannah. I wish to dedicate this thesis to my husband, Mr Saleh Al Nafisah, and my children (Mohammed, Mshari, Nawaf, Abdulgani, Ibrahim), and I thank them for their love, understanding, and encouragement throughout my studies. My appreciation to His Excellency the Ambassador of the Saudi Kingdom, Mr Abdullah Al Madhi, and his wife, Mrs Sarah Al Alobaikan, for their unfailing support and assistance. ii Abstract This research is an exploratory study of ancient and modern perceptions with regard to Muslim female clothing practices. A combination of historical-comparative and social-science research methodology is utilised to determine how female clothing practices, specifically modest clothing, developed over millennia. The research belongs under the broad umbrella of qualitative data collection and analysis. The study has a socio-historical, cultural, and religious focus and departs from the observation that Muslim female clothing practices imply a complex symbol of many meanings. Female clothing practices are analysed from a historical perspective as a cultural phenomenon with its roots in ancient Mediterranean societies (Chapter 2). These ancient cultural practices are re-applied and re-appropriated in Islamic tradition (Chapter 3) and find expression in modern society via Muslim women’s choice to follow traditional clothing practices (Chapter 4). This allows the researcher to also study the phenomenon within the context of the social-sciences (Chapter 5). In this way the researcher approaches Muslim female clothing practices as a complex symbol with many meanings by means of a comprehensive research approach. The ecological systems theory acts as theoretical framework for the study. Individuals interact within environmental systems. It creates a framework from which scholars can study the relationships between individuals and their communities and the wider society. The research develops in four phases. First, it explores the nature, development, meaning, and cultural significance of female clothing in the ancient Mediterranean world, with a specific focus on the origin of the cultural phenomenon. Second, it investigates wearing the hijab as a religious obligation according to Islamic tradition. Third, it investigates the significance of various facets of the hijab as it features in contemporary society. Finally, through a qualitative research approach, it explores women's perceptions of their choice to wear the hijab in a non-Muslim society. The researcher concludes that an ancient cultural practice has been re-applied on a religious level in the Islamic context. In spite of many misconceptions and negative stereotyping Muslim women agree that they freely choose to wear the hijab because it gives visual expression to their identity as Muslims and protects them against objectification. By using the hijab as an opportunity for dialogue, better understanding iii of the practice might lead to increased tolerance for diverse cultural and religious practices in contemporary society. Key terms: Clothing practices; clothing as symbol; ancient Near Eastern societies; Islamic tradition; hijab; niqab; veiling; stereotyping; tolerance; diversity; identity; body; sanctity; privacy. iv Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ORIENTATION .......................................................... 1 1.1 Introductory remarks ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Development of the research project and definitions of key concepts ............................. 4 1.3 Rationale for the study ................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Research approach ........................................................................................................ 7 1.5 Theoretical framework .................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Goal and objectives ...................................................................................................... 10 1.7 Outline of the study ...................................................................................................... 10 1.8 Concluding remarks ..................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2: FEMALE CLOTHING PRACTICES IN ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN SOCIETIES – A LASTING HERITAGE ........................................................ 12 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 12 2.2 Clothing in ancient Mediterranean societies: A visual expression of core social values 13 2.3 Female clothing practices in ancient Mediterrarean societies ....................................... 15 2.3.1 Mesopotamia ............................................................................................................ 16 2.3.2 Anatolia ..................................................................................................................... 21 2.3.3 Syria and Palestine ................................................................................................... 23 2.3.4 Ancient Egypt ............................................................................................................ 26 2.3.5 Israelite and Judean Culture...................................................................................... 28 2.3.6 The Persian Empire .................................................................................................. 31 2.3.7 Greece and Rome ..................................................................................................... 34 2.3.8 Emerging Judaism and early Christianity ................................................................... 38 2.4 Clothing in the foundation documents of the three Book Religions ............................... 43 2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER 3: FEMALE CLOTHING PRACTICES ACCORDING TO ISLAMIC TRADITION.................................................................................................. 48 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 48 3.2 Islam: A brief historical overview .................................................................................. 49 3.3 Islam: Sources, beliefs, obligations, and practices ....................................................... 54 3.3.1 Introductory remarks ................................................................................................. 54 v 3.3.2 Sources ..................................................................................................................... 55 3.3.3 Beliefs, obligations, and practices ............................................................................. 59 3.4 Female clothing practices according to the Qur’ān, Ḥadīth, and Tafsīr ......................... 63 3.4.1 General orientation .................................................................................................... 63 3.4.1.1 Introductory remarks .............................................................................................. 63 3.4.1.2 Hijab as marker of sacred space: Surah 33:53 ....................................................... 63 3.4.1.3 Hijab