Virginia Commonwealth University VCU Scholars Compass Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2011 Giving Voice To Student And Alumnae Opposition During The Transition To Coeducation By A College For Women Rebecca Grandstaff Clarke Virginia Commonwealth University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd Part of the Education Commons © The Author Downloaded from https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/2418 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at VCU Scholars Compass. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of VCU Scholars Compass. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ©Rebecca Jean Grandstaff Clarke 2011 All Rights Reserved GIVING VOICE TO STUDENT AND ALUMNAE OPPOSITION DURING THE TRANSITION TO COEDUCTION BY A COLLEGE FOR WOMEN A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Virginia Commonwealth University. by Rebecca Jean Grandstaff Clarke B.A., University of Richmond, 1976 Post-Baccalaureate Certificate in Accounting, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1979 M.A., George Washington University, 1999 Co-Director: Mary Hermann, J.D., Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Counselor Education School of Education Co-Director: Teresa J. Carter, Ed.D. Assistant Professor and Adult Learning Program Coordinator, Teaching and Learning Department School of Education Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia April, 2011 ii Acknowledgment It may take a village to raise a child; however, it takes a great dissertation committee, a supportive family, and good friends to help a doctoral candidate earn a Ph.D. With their expertise and direction, my dissertation committee has assisted me in taking a nebulous idea and some ill-formed research questions and producing a dissertation of which I am proud. To Dr. Mary Hermann, Dr. Teresa Carter, Dr. Maike Philipsen, and Dr. Juliette Landphair, I am eternally grateful for your guidance, understanding, and patience. You will always be some of the most important women in my life. This dissertation involved a significant amount of legal research and interpretation, which was provided by Chivonne Thomas, Esquire. During her law school days at the University of Richmond, Chivonne helped me understand the legal terminology, the case precedents, and workings of our state‘s legal system. Without her assistance, I would have not been able to grasp the legal aspects of this dissertation. I read this dissertation so many times that I lost my ability to review it for readability and correctness. My ―inheritable‖ daughter, Angela Brooke White, served as my copy editor and proofreader while also pursuing her Ph.D. at the University of Colorado. Her editorial comments, although sometimes tough, helped me produce a better dissertation. iii Throughout the writing of this dissertation, I have sought information from research librarians at a number of colleges and universities. I have never encountered a group of professionals who were more friendly and helpful. To the research librarians at Virginia Commonwealth University, University of Richmond, University of Virginia, and Mount Holyoke College, thank you very much. I extend a special thanks to the graduates of PWC who participated in this study. You have given me your time and honest answers to my interview questions. You made my dissertation research interesting and fun. My only regret is that I cannot use your real names because you are a remarkable group of women who have my respect and admiration. Without my family and friends, I could have not accomplished the lifetime goal of earning my Ph.D. My friends have given me words of encouragement or sent me inspirational or hilarious emails to keep me motivated. My dear friends Becky and John Thomas have prepared gourmet meals for me when I would have eaten a can of dog food had someone placed it, along with a fork, in front of me. The person most important to me throughout this process has been my husband, John Clarke. He has been my research assistant, proofreader, and primary cheerleader. He has paid my tuition, booked and paid for all my travel arrangements, and not once has he complained. He told me I was smart and the best doctoral candidate when I questioned my ability to proceed. I love him forever for everything he has done to help me achieve one of the most important goals of my life. To Austin and Baylee Grandstaff, you may now call me Dr. Dork. iv Table of Contents Page LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... vii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. viii 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 Overview of the Study and Literature Review ................................................................. 3 Rationale for the Study ..................................................................................................... 6 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 9 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 10 Design and Methodology ............................................................................................... 11 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................................................................... 12 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 12 A History of the Higher Education of Women .............................................................. 12 Support of the Higher Education of Women ................................................................. 14 The History and Development of Women‘s Colleges and Coeducational Institutions...................................................................................................................... 15 Opposition to the Higher Education of Women ............................................................ 18 The Environment of Women‘s Colleges ........................................................................ 25 An Unwelcome Place for Women: The ―Chilly Classroom‖ ........................................ 30 The Chilly Classroom: It is Not the Men ................................................................ 43 Women‘s Colleges: Producing Women Achievers ........................................................ 53 Women‘s Colleges versus Coeducational Institutions ................................................... 67 A Changing Environment: Demise of Women‘s Colleges, Student Protests, and Legal Challenges to Coeducation ............................................................................ 80 History and Philosophy of PWC .................................................................................... 89 Current Challenges at PWC ........................................................................................... 93 Definition of Terms...................................................................................................... 102 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (104) ................................................................... 104 Phenomenological Research ........................................................................................ 104 v Page The Research Topic and Questions.............................................................................. 107 Participant Selection Process ....................................................................................... 108 Data Collection ............................................................................................................ 110 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 116 Trustworthiness of the Research Study........................................................................ 118 Delimitations ................................................................................................................ 120 Limitations ................................................................................................................... 120 4. DECISION MAKING IN EMERGENT DESIGN .................................................. 122 Participant Selection Process ....................................................................................... 122 Data Collection ............................................................................................................ 124 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 126 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 126 5. FINDINGS ............................................................................................................... 127 PWC as a College for Women ..................................................................................... 128 PWC as the College of Choice ............................................................................. 128 At Home With Family .........................................................................................