The University of Hull GENDER, DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN ROTE, EASTERN INDONESIA being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Centre for South-East Asian Studies by Maria Agustina Noach-Patty Dra in History and Anthropology (Satyawacana Christian University in Salatiga, Indonesia) Master of Affective Education (State University of New York, Oswego, U. S.A. ) October 1995 GENDER, DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN ROTE, EASTERN INDONESIA by Maria Agustina Noach-Patty ABSTRACT This thesis explores gender relations in the island of Rote in Indonesia. It examines Rotenese social organization and the role of women in development. In this case the researcher is of the same culture of the people being studied: the analysis is derived from social science informed by local knowledge. The thesis argues that gender relations among the Rotenese have a complementary nature. Rotenese society and culture have been subjected to many dualistically inclined interpretations. In this analysis of Rotenese social organization dualism is shown to be fundamental to all aspects of Rotenese life. Gender relations, therefore, are discussed in terms of a binary category. It is impossible to study women in isolation from men because in the Rotenese cultural context they function as a pair. This dualism, which at first sight gives a sense of opposition between male and female, and between 'outer house' (male) and 'inner house' (female) domains, is revealed on closer examination as a complementary relationship, in which the two halves, men and women, make a complete whole. The main themes considered in this thesis are as follows: (i) The political system of Rote from the colonial past to the present is discussed by reference to its dualistic orientation. (ii) Kinship is examined in terms of male descent and female affiliation. A closer examination of the Rotenese marriage transactions reveals the high status of women. (iii) The gender division of work in the 'inner house' is described in detail as a female domain. It is then shown that there is a blurring of the boundary between the 'inner house and the 'outer house'. (iv) The gender division of work in the 'outer house' is described as a male domain, but in response to development, there is an increasing participation of women in this male domain. (v) The combination of national development and Indonesian nation-building also influences gender relations in Rote, and this is considered together with the role of Rotenese women in development. Finally, it is stressed that the analyst's evaluation of male and female contributions to the family is not necessarily the way Rotenese perceive or make sense of their gender relations. %nthe ord, however, woman is not independent of man, #. ,, not is man independent of woman. Joy as woman came from man, so also man is born of woman. jgut everything comes from Clod. 1Corinthians 11:11-12 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Praise and glory to God for his guidance through the duration of this study. My government demonstrated its belief in me by according me generous moral and financial support. I shall always remain grateful to them, and to the people of Indonesia, especially the Rotenese,for backing me in this work. This thesis is a product of concerted efforts and hard work involving the input of many persons. I am particularly indebted to my supervisor Professor Michael Hitchcock, for his patience and valuable guidance. It has been my good fortune to work with such a knowledgeable and dedicated supervisor. Special thanks to Professor Terry King, Dean, School of Social and Political Sciences and to Mr. Lewis Hill for all their help. I also wish to thank the Director, Dr. Michael Parnwell, and the academic and administrative staff of the Centre for South East Asian Studies, all of whom were very supportive. Similarly, the encouragement received from the staff of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, particularly Dr. David Booth and Dr. Caroline Wright, is well appreciated. Of equal significance is the input from Mrs Margaret Freeman, who spent an immeasurable amount of her valuable time editing the thesis and provided a very warm shoulder on which to load my worries. I am most grateful. In the process of producing a Ph.D. a good social network is imperative. I shall always remember my good friends, as jointly we underwent this process, cried and laughed, and shared ideas. Our friendship proved to be the key to our survival. May God guide them all in their future endeavours. Most importantly I owe a lot to my husband Daniel for his patience and support particularly during difficult periods. It was not easy since he was equally involved with his Ph.D work at the same time. This in my opinion enriched the learning experience. Maria Augustina Noach Patty IV CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ...................................................................... CONTENTS ........................................................................................ v LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................. xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1. Theoretical Background 1 2. ResearchMethodology 9 3. The Structure of the Thesis 13 CHAPTER TWO: GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 18 1. Geographyand Climate of Rote 18 1.1 Geologyand Regional Setting 18 1.2Climate 19 2. The Peopleof Rote andMyths of Origin 21 2.1 Peopleof Rote 21 2.2 Myths of Origin 26 2.3 The RoteneseLanguage 31 3. EconomicBackground 33 3.1 The Myths of GoddessLakamola 33 3.2 Agriculture 37 3.3 Animal Husbandry 41 3.4 Lontar in RoteneseLivelihood 42 4. Summary and Conclusion 44 CHAPTER THREE: THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 46 1. Introduction. 46 2. The Portuguesein Rote 49 V 3. The Dutch in Rote (1653-1942) 50 4. The Political Leaders 60 4.1 Manek (Lord of Nusak) 60 4.2 Mane-Feto or Fetor (The Female Lord) 60 4.3 Mane Dae Langgak (Lord of the Earth) 62 4.4 Mane Dombe or Mane Dope (The Lord of Knife) 63 4.5 Mane Sio or Sio Ai (Nine Lords or Nine Trees) 63 4.6 Mane Leo (Lord of the Leo or Clan) 64 5. Social Leaders 64 6. Rote in the Republic of Indonesia 66 7. Summary and Conclusion 69 CHAPTER FOUR: KINSHIP AND MARRIAGE 71 . 1. Kinship and Gender Relations 71 1.1 Consanguineal Relationships 73 1.2 The RoteneseConcept of Gender 76 2. Rotenese Traditional Marriage and Bridewealth 79 3. Rotenese'sMyths of Bridewealth 89 4. Female Inheritance 94 5. Summary and Conclusion 96 CHAPTER FIVE: GENDER DIVISION OF WORK IN THE INNER HOUSE (UMA DALEK) 98 1. Introduction 98 2. Women'sWork in the Inner House(Uma Dalek) 103 2.1 Culinary Activities 103 2.2 Nursing and Child Care 107 2.3 Production and Acquisition of Household Items. 109 2.4 Cleaningthe House 110 2.5 Water Collecting 110 2.6 Firewood Collecting 111 2.7 Vegetable Cultivation 112 2.8 Palm SugarProduction 113 2.9 Weaving 115 2.10 Palm Leaf Weaving and Plaiting 120 vi 2.11 Salt Production 121 2.12 Pig Rearing 122 2.13 Poultry Keeping 123 3. Summary and Conclusions 123 CHAPTER SIX: GENDER DIVISION OF WORK IN THE OUTER HOUSE (UMA DEAK) 125 1. Introduction 125 2. Gender Division of Work in the Outer House (Uma Deak) 125 2.1 Rice Cultivation 126 2.2 Gardening (Shifting Cultivation) 131 2.3 Multi-Crop Gardening (Mamak) 135 2.4 Animal Breeding 136 2.4.1 Goats and Sheep 137 2.4.2 Cattle Breeding 138 2.5 Lontar Palm Tapping 139 2.6 Fishing 140 3. Summaryand Conclusions 142 CHAPTER SEVEN: THE IMPACT OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON ROTE 144 1. Introduction 144 2. Agricultural Development 145 2.1 Rice 145 2.2 Maize 149 2.3 Cassava,Sweet Potato and Groundnut 150 2.4 Vegetables and Fruits 153 2.5 Tree-crop Production 154 2.6 Livestock 154 2.7 Fishing 158 2.8 Tourism Projects 160 3. Social Development 167 3.1 Education 168 3.2 Health 172 3.3 Family Planning 174 3.4 Housing, Clean Water and Electricity in Rote 175 vii 3.5 Transportation and Communication 177 3.6 Religion 178 4. Socio-EconomicCondition of ThreeSubdistricts 181 5. Summary and Conclusions 185 CHAPTER EIGHT: THE ROLE OF ROTENESE WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT 187 1. Introduction 187 2. Women's Organization in NTT and Rote 191 2.1 TP-PKK 191 2.2 DharmaWanita Nusa Tenggara Timur 194 2.3 BKOW NusaTenggara Timur 196 3. Women's Programmes in NTT (including Rote) 199 4. TP-PKK Programmesin Rote-Ndao1991-1992 204 4.1 Mental and Spiritual Programme 207 4.2 Economic/Cooperative Programme 207 4.3 Educationaland Training Programmes 208 4.4 Healthand Family PlanningProgramme 208 4.5 Environment 209 4.6 Law Programmes 209 4.7 Rotating Credit among Women 209 5. The Impct of Development on Women 210 6. Summary and Conclusions 21 1A CHAPTER NINE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 212 APPENDICES 221 Appendix I: Document No. 22 Buitenzorg 13 April 1877.224 Appendix II: Document No. Pem. 66/1/2 Kupang, 28 Pebruari 1962 230 Appendix III: Document No. Pem, 66/1/2 Kupang, 11 April 1968 231 Appendix IV: Women's Organizations in Indonesia (Functional 234 Organizations of Dharma Wanita) Appendix V: Map of Indonesia 235 viii Appendix VI: Map of The Province of Nusa Tenggara Timur 236 Appendix VII: Map of The Island of Rote 237 Appendix VIII: The Daily Activity of a Housewife 237A in Rote Barat Daya LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 238 GLOSSARY 239 BIBLIOGRAPHY 244 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 National Administration Hierarchy in Indonesia 66 Figure 2 Social Genealogical Organization 71 Figure 3 Lineage Groups of Nusak Thie 72 Figure 4 Kinship Relationships in Rote 74 Figure 5 Gender Roles in Rice Cultivation 127 Figure 6 The