UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE THE USE OF IMAGERY, MENTAL PRACTICE, AND RELAXATION TECHNIQUES FOR MUSICAL PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT A DOCUMENT SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Deg ree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS By LESLEY ANN SISTERHEN Norman, Oklahoma 2005 UMI Number: 3174357 Copyright 2005 by Sisterhen, Lesley Ann All rights reserved. UMI Microform 3174357 Copyright 2005 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 ©Copyright by LESLEY SISTERHEN 2005 All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge the support and as sistance of many individuals whose contributions made possible the completion of this document. My deepest appreciation is extended to the members of my committee for the generous gift of their time and effort. My sincere thanks goes out to Dr. Jane Magr ath, who has served in several roles as the chair of my committee, my academic advisor, and my mentor throughout the process of completing the document. Her invaluable advice, dedication, wisdom, and editing savvy have served as both an inspiration and a model of musical and academic integrity against which I have been able to measure my own work. The support and guidance of other members of my committee have also been invaluable. I wish to thank Dr. Barbara Fast, whose insightful reading of my document and enriching pedagogical guidance have challenged me to grow as a teacher and writer. Dr. Sanna Pederson deserves thanks for her support of the study along with her specific ideas regarding style and content which were very beneficial in the writing pro cess. Thank you to Dr. Joseph Havlicek for his interest in the study and his unique perspective as both a musician and a member of the faculty of the College of Engineering. My appreciation also goes out to Dr. Stephenson, whose knowledge of grammar and formatting and his keen editor’s eye increased the professionalism and scholarship of the document. I would also like to thank Dr. Gates, who was willing to become a member of the committee iv during my final semester and showed interest, encouragement, and an impressive amount of prior knowledge in the subject matter. Special thanks is given to the five pianists, hereafter known as Harrison, Margaret, Matt, Annie, and Stephen, who dedicated their time, energy, and loyalty as participants in the study. Their commitment to being actively involved in the study by completing the individual assignments, being present at every session, and fully engaging in the imagery and relaxation routines made the study possible. Thank you to Chad, Molly, and my sister Laura for being my support system and always offering encouragement when it was needed. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Pat and George, who have always had faith in me throughout my years of being a student of the piano. v TABLE OF CONTE NTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ x ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER I. Introduction............................................................................................1 Background......................................................................................1 Need for the Study ...........................................................................4 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................5 Description of the Study ..................................................................8 Research Design .............................................................................13 Instrument Description...................................................................24 Personal Report of Confidence as a Performer (PRCP) ....25 State/Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) ................................25 Definitions of Terms ......................................................................27 Limitations of the Study .................................................................30 Organization of the Study ..............................................................32 II. Review of the Literature ......................................................................34 Relaxation Techniques ...................................................................34 Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PM R) ..........................40 Visuo-Motor Behavior Rehearsal (VMBR) .......................42 Deep Breathing ..................................................................48 Relaxation Training and Systematic Desensitization ........50 Imagery Research in Sport Psychology .........................................56 Historical Overview of Imagery Research .........................60 Self -Reports by Athletes ....................................................63 Imagery Ability ..................................................................64 The Im portance of Positive Imagery ..................................69 Research Supporting the Psychoneuromuscular Theory ...70 Research Supporting the Symbolic Learning Theory ........73 Research Supporting the Bio -informational Theory ..........75 Self -Efficacy Theory ..........................................................78 vi Research Supporting the Attention-Arousal Set Theory ...79 Imagery Research in Music ...........................................................80 The Use of Imagery by Musical Pedagogues ....................86 The Use of Imagery to Alleviate Performance Anxiety ....89 Imagery Use by Elite Musicians........................................90 Practical Applications of Imagery .................................................92 Regulation of Arousal ........................................................92 Memory ..............................................................................95 Concentration.....................................................................97 Aural Awareness and “Audiation”...................................102 Education .........................................................................107 Problem Solving...............................................................108 Medicine ..........................................................................110 Muscular Efficiency .........................................................113 Mental Practice Research in Sport Psychology ...........................115 Meta -Analyses of the Literature ......................................117 Slow-Motion Mental Practice ..........................................121 Mental Pract ice and Intelligence ......................................123 Mental Practice and Simulated Movement......................124 Mental Practice and Task Difficulty ................................125 Mental Practice and Motivation.......................................126 The Combination of Mental and Physical Practice ..........127 Mental Practice Research in Music ..............................................129 Mental Practice and Me morization of Music ...................130 Mental Practice with Listening ........................................132 Mental Practice and Simulated Movement......................133 Mental Practice and Aural Knowledge of Results ...........134 The Combination of Mental and Physical Practice ..........135 III. Results ................................................................................................138 Analysis of Pre - and Post -test Scores : STAI and PRCP ..............142 State/Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) ..............................144 Personal Report of Confidence as a Performer (PRCP) ..148 Perception of Performance Change from Self -Report: Videotape Evaluations...................................................................................149 Session One......................................................................152 Session Two .....................................................................159 Session Three ...................................................................164 Session Four.....................................................................169 Session Five .....................................................................173 vii Comparison of Scores among Different Sessions............177 Progressive Relaxation and Imagery: Subject Perceptions of Efficacy ........................................................................................185 Progressive Relaxation.....................................................189 Imagery: Clarity and Controllability ................................196 Imagery in Group Sessions ..................................197 Imagery in Individual Practice .............................207 Mental Practice ............................................................................211 Week One.........................................................................211 Week Two ........................................................................215 Week Three ......................................................................219 Week Four........................................................................221