ASSESSMENT OF CHANGE IN SMALLHOLDER FARMERS’ LIVELIHOODS DUE TO LAND DEGRADATION IN LUDEWA DISTRICT, TANZANIA BY COSMAS BENEDICT MABALIKA HAULE THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, MOROGORO, TANZANIA. 2009 ii ABSTRACT Cross sectional survey was conducted to investigate change in smallholder farmers’ livelihoods as a result of land degradation from stratified sample of 240 households in four villages in Ludewa District, Tanzania. Survey was complemented by remote sensing, documentations, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), transect walks, and in- depth interview with key informants. Data were analyzed by Geographical Information System (GIS), chi-square and logistic regression and qualitatively by content analysis. The results showed that between 1979 and 2002, area covered by open woodland dropped from 30 percent to five percent. In contrast, settlement with mixed cropping increased from 15 percent to 22 percent, bushland with scattered cropping from four percent to 16 percent, and woodland with scattered cropping increased from 10 percent to 22 percent in the same period. The increase in settlement with mixed cropping and woodland with scattered cropping implied increased continuous cultivation, shortened fallow periods, invasion of marginal lands, drying of natural springs, change in water sources, and increased migration. In absence of land management plans and none enforcement of conservation bylaws, weak and/or uncoordinated institutions, the change in state of land increased encroachment of marginal lands. Furthermore, the study revealed that smallholder farmers responded to decline in soil fertility by increasing use of new crop varieties and animal manure, limiting field size and increasing land fragmentation. In addition, there was limited agricultural development, especially agricultural mechanization apart from spraying machines for cashew nut and small irrigation scheme in Lifua village. Moreover, 99.4 percent of farmers in the study area got new cassava varieties iii from their neighbours. Logistic regression showed that influence of socio-economic factors on smallholder farmers’ livelihoods was not uniform. Young and single households dominated in fish selling and those with high incomes were leading cattle keepers. The major conclusion is that the extent and magnitude of change in smallholder farmers’ livelihoods differed between villages and households. In order to improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, this study recommend Ludewa District Council to train farmers in improved livestock keeping, beekeeping, fish farming, and commercial tree planting which are viable activities to support livelihoods of financial constrained households in degraded lands. iv DECLARATION I, Cosmas Benedict Mabalika Haule, do hereby declare to the Senate of Sokoine University of Agriculture that this thesis is my own original work, and it has neither been submitted nor being concurrently submitted to any other university. _________________________________ ___________________ Cosmas B. M. Haule Date PhD Candidate The above declaration is confirmed. ____________________________________ ____________________ Prof. Malongo R. S. Mlozi Date Main supervisor _____________________________________ ____________________ Dr. Matthew K. Mulengera Date Co-supervisor v COPYRIGHT All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the author or Sokoine University of Agriculture in that behalf. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This thesis is the result of a study carried out in Ludewa District in Iringa region, Tanzania. The success of this work was made possible by moral and material support of different individuals and institutions. First, and foremost, I thank Almighty God for giving me the privilege of living and good health. Also, I am grateful to prayer groups at St. Patrick, Carmelite Community, and St. Mary MODECO in Morogoro for their love and spiritual support. In the same spirit I appreciate the moral support accorded to me by my neighbours at Kihonda Magorofani, I feel proud to be part of that community. I am obliged to acknowledge the Council and Management of the Open University of Tanzania, especially the Vice Chancellor and his Deputies, for granting me a study leave and financing this study. Also, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Malongo R. S. Mlozi and Dr. Matthew K. Mulengera. They deserve appreciation for their critical comments, tireless encouragement, and guidance in shaping this thesis. I am also grateful to all staff of the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension (DAEE) and Department of Agricultural Engineering and Land Planning who took interest in my study and for their comments during the period of research proposal development and thesis writing. Similar appreciations go to Research and Poverty Alleviation (REPOA) whose training in designing research was of great help to me. In addition, I appreciate my colleagues at Sokoine University of Agriculture vii (SUA) and Open University of Tanzania (OUT), especially Keneth Masuki, Vedast Makota, Marcus Lalika, Athuman Samzugi, Ngemba Makuru, Martina Pangani, Esther Muffui, Samson Eshetu, Million Getnet and Gerishu Bati whose discussions provided food for the mind and challenges for further enquiry. I would like to take this opportunity to thank the Ludewa District Council and all smallholder farmers who participated in this study. Also, special thanks go to staff in the Ludewa District Agricultural and Livestock Development Officer’s (DALDO) Office, Village Executive Officers, and Sub-village chairpersons who accompanied me in the field. In addition, I appreciate the cooperation and endurance shown and given to me by the respondents during the interviews, focused group discussions and in-depth interviews. Finally, special thanks go to my family, particularly my wife Esther Masele, my daughters Veronica and Vestina–Aika for their prayers, patience, understanding and support during the entire period of this study. viii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my father Benedict Mabalika and mother Veronica Sowoya who passed away before the dream of this work could be realized. Thanks are to the Almighty Father, Lord Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit who made me share the love of my parents. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... ii DECLARATION .................................................................................................. iv COPYRIGHT..........................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................... vi DEDICATION .................................................................................................... viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................xiv LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................xvi LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................... xvii ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER ONE .....................................................................................................1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................1 1.1 Background to the Problem ..............................................................................1 1.2 Statement of the Problem and Justification .......................................................8 1.3 Objectives of the Study .................................................................................. 12 1.3.1 General objectives ........................................................................... 12 1.3.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................... 12 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................. 13 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 13 2.1 Overview ....................................................................................................... 13 2.2 Change of Land Conditions due to Land Degradation ..................................... 13 2.3 Potential of Policies for Reducing Land Degradation ...................................... 25 x 2.4 Institutional Arrangements for Reducing Land Degradation ........................... 35 2.5 Livelihood Strategies Change Due to Land Degradation ................................. 43 2.6 Socio-economic Factors Influences on Farmers’ Livelihoods ......................... 52 2.7 Impacts of Land Degradation on Smallholder Farmers’ Livelihoods ............... 56 2.7.1 Overview ......................................................................................... 56 2.7.2 Theoretical frameworks on impact of land degradation .................... 57 2.7.3 Conceptual framework on change in livelihoods