TRANSLATING, PRACTICING AND COMMODIFYING YOGA IN THE U.S. By SHREENA NIKETA DIVYAKANT GANDHI A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2009 1 © 2009 Shreena Niketa Divyakant Gandhi 2 To My Dad and Mom 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I am thankful for all the teachers that I have had over the years. Each member of my dissertation committee has been instrumental in how I have come to think about history and religion. Dr. Jon Sensbach (through Rebecca) has helped me think about the characters that create the history; that they are not merely pawns but agents that are emblematic of their times and contexts, which helped me realize that the various yogi characters in my dissertation are not only products but also producers of history. Dr. Manuel Vasquez introduced me to Maurice Merleau-Ponty and the fallacy of a Cartesian outlook especially when examining a bodily practice. Far beyond yoga, Dr. Vasudha Narayanan opened my eyes to the richness and variety of my own history, heritage and faith; her words have brought meaning and hope in times of extreme light and darkness over these past six years. Dr. David Hackett has patiently and meticulously worked with me on a variety of subjects; because of his dedicated teaching I have been able to think through and about the commodity and fetish, its place in culture, capitalism and American religious history. Without the guidance and teaching of Dr. Narayanan and Dr. Hackett, I would not be the teacher or the person I am today, and for that I am immensely grateful. Beyond my committee I have been lucky to have a group of teachers at the University of Florida, Harvard Divinity School and Swarthmore College that have all contributed to my overall development and in particular, to this dissertation. First, at UF, I must thank Annie Newman, who has kept me informed of procedures and deadlines; I am convinced that there is no one that knows the intricacies of the university better. Also at UF, three professors in particular, Dr. Anna Peterson, Dr. Gwynn Kessler and Dr. Richard Foltz all have impacted and influenced my thinking about the history of yoga 4 in the U.S. Dr. Peterson’s scholarship is a testament to the importance of examining practice beyond the world of ritual and in the realm of politics (and economics). Dr. Kessler wisely introduced my peers and I to Elaine Scarry and the value of questioning how and why religions are classified. Finally, though I never had him as a professor, I did have the privilege of being Dr. Foltz’s T.A., during which time he made me rethink the migration, movement and marketing of religions as a constant process through human history, and he made me seriously think about the notion of origins and syncretism. At HDS, I had the fortune of studying American religious history with Dr. Robert Orsi, Dr. David Hall and Dr. Lowell Livezey. Beyond the obvious lessons of lived religion, these three professors stressed the importance of anchoring all my work in primary sources, without which there is no narrative, analysis or theory. At Swarthmore, in the Religion department, was where my curiosity about and love for religious studies was cultivated; and for this I have to thank Dr. Steven Hopkins and Dr. Mark Wallace, whose encouragement, support and confidence in me gave me the courage to pursue further degrees. It was in Dr. Wallace’s class, first semester of freshman year where I first read Martin Buber’s I Thou, a book that I continually use to make sure that I attempt not to objectify the historical and contemporary agents in my narratives. My love for critical theory was also influenced by Dr. Braulio Munoz who not taught me about historical materialism and liberation theology, but also first made me read (using the techniques of hermeneutics) Walter Benjamin and Hans Georg Gademar. Lastly, I would be remiss not to thank Dr. Doug Collar, my high school U.S. History teacher, who first made me realize that I did not have to become a scientist or doctor just because I was Indian. 5 These past two years of dissertation research and writing would not have been possible without Carol Anderson, who has been a wonderful mentor, colleague and friend. I am truly grateful that I have a chair who values my presence, genuinely considers my ideas, and helps me think through my ideas on religion and teaching. I am not sure what I did in a past life to land at a very good, small liberal arts college that is close to my family, but I am sure that I have Carol to thank for this blessing. Deb Pattison has also helped me transition from student to faculty, while also being a dear friend, a rock and a sounding board for all the dramas, academic and non-academic, in my life. And Liz Smith at the Kalamazoo College library has consistently helped me track down a variety of sources (obscure magazines, microfilms and publishers), and her help in these source-quests has been invaluable. I have also been very lucky to be blessed with so many amazing friends who have all been critical in helping me through this process. In particular I want to thank and acknowledge Gayle Lasater, Hilit Surowitz, Kathleen Holscher and BoHee Yoon. Gayle has been at UF with me from day one, Hilit came a year later and completed the ‘Americas Girls Club,’ and in the process of classes and exams they have become two of my closest friends. Both Gayle and Hilit helped me get through my qualifying exams and have been critical conversation partners throughout all my years at UF, especially these past two years of research of writing. Kathleen has also been a valued conversation partner; fate placed Kathleen and I together as roommates our freshman year at Swarthmore and now we are both American religious historians - I consider myself to be extremely fortunate to have a colleague and friend who not only understands my field, but also who I was then and now. Finally, without the love and 6 encouragement and support of BoHee, I do not know who I would be today; so often, when one is an academic, it is hard to remember to live and develop outside the academy and BoHee has been that reminder. I know I am a better person because of her, and for personal reasons, I dedicate my third chapter to her. Finally, I must thank the Patel side of my family, who are scattered all over the world, from New Zealand to the U.S. All of my aunts, uncles, cousins and my maternal grandmother, Bhanumati Patel keep me grounded and happy. My paternal grandfather, Bhogilal Gandhi, always encouraged my interest in religion, philosophy and meditative practices from a young age. I will always treasure my long walks, conversations and adventures in New York City with my Dadaji – it is during these times at a young age when I first became acquainted with Hindu and Buddhist philosophies. I miss him dearly, but as one light in my life was extinguished, another entered – my brother Alexander Gandhi, who has brought me infinite joy during these past four years; the very thought of him brings a smile to my face which cannot be underestimated in the process of taking exams and writing a dissertation. During these years I have also been lucky to receive the additional love, care and support of Maria Gandhi. None of this would be possible, however, without my parents, Divyakant Gandhi and Ragini Gandhi. I do not know that I will be able to adequately thank them in this lifetime for all the love, all the late nights, all the listening, all the times they have run to my side and all the sacrifices… Last but never least, I want to thank my constant, my best friend and my sister, Aneesha Gandhi, for always believing in me and being on my side. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 10 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 14 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 21 Method & Theory .................................................................................................... 30 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................... 36 Introducing Yoga .............................................................................................. 36 Popularizing Yoga ............................................................................................ 37 Domesticating Yoga ......................................................................................... 39 Communalizing Yoga ....................................................................................... 41 Complicating Yoga ........................................................................................... 42 2 INTRODUCING YOGA ........................................................................................... 45 What Is Yoga? Meaning and History in India .......................................................... 47 Yoga and the Transcendentalists ........................................................................... 51 Yoga and the Theosophists .................................................................................... 54 World’s Parliament of Religions