Rich cities with poor people Nederlandse Geografische Studies / Netherlands Geographical Studies Redactie / Editorial Board Drs. J.G. Borchert (Editor in Chief ) Prof. Dr. J.M.M. van Amersfoort Dr. P.C.J. Druijven Prof. Dr. A.O. Kouwenhoven Prof. Dr. H. Scholten Plaatselijke Redacteuren / Local Editors Dr. R. van Melik, Faculteit Geowetenschappen Universiteit Utrecht Dr. D.H. Drenth, Faculteit der Managementwetenschappen Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen Dr. P.C.J. Druijven, Faculteit der Ruimtelijke Wetenschappen Rijksuniversiteit Groningen Dr. L. van der Laan, Economisch-Geografisch Instituut Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam Dr. J.A. van der Schee, Centrum voor Educatieve Geografie Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Dr. F. Thissen, Afdeling Geografie, Planologie en Internationale Ontwikkelingsstudies Universiteit van Amsterdam Redactie-Adviseurs / Editorial Advisory Board Prof. Dr. G.J. Ashworth, Prof. Dr. P.G.E.F. Augustinus, Prof. Dr. G.J. Borger, Prof. Dr. K. Bouwer, Prof. Dr. J. Buursink, Prof. Dr. G.A. Hoekveld, Dr. A.C. Imeson, Prof. Dr. J.M.G. Kleinpenning, Dr. W.J. Meester, Prof. Dr. F.J. Ormeling, Prof. Dr. H.F.L. Ottens, Dr. J. Sevink, Dr. W.F. Sleegers, T.Z. Smit, Drs. P.J.M. van Steen, Dr. J.J. Sterkenburg, Drs. H.A.W. van Vianen, Prof. Dr. J. van Weesep ISSN 0169-4839 Netherlands Geographical Studies 391 Rich cities with poor people Waterfront regeneration in the Netherlands and Scotland Brian Doucet Utrecht 2010 Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap Faculteit Geowetenschappen Universiteit Utrecht This publication has been submitted as a PhD thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor (PhD) at Utrecht University. The public defence of this thesis took place on April 6, 2010. Promotor: Prof.dr. R. van Kempen, Utrecht University Co-promotor: Prof.dr. J. van Weesep, Utrecht University Examination committee: Prof. Dr. Larry S. Bourne University of Toronto Dr. Keith Kintrea University of Glasgow Prof. Dr. Frank van Oort Universiteit Utrecht Dr. Ir. Marjolein Spaans Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. Dr. Rob J.F.M. van der Vaart Universiteit Utrecht ISBN 978-90-6809-434-3 Graphic design, cartography and figures: GeoMedia [7678] (Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University) All photos taken by Brian Doucet, except figures 1.19, 1.29, 1.30 and 1.31 courtesy of Glasgow Museum of Transport. Copyright © Brian Doucet, c/o Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, 2010 Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden vermenigvuldigd en/of openbaar gemaakt door middel van druk, fotokopie of op welke andere wijze dan ook zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de uitgevers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, by print or photo print, microfilm or any other means, without written permission by the publishers. Printed in the Netherlands by A-D Druk b.v. – Zeist Contents Figures 9 Tables 11 Preface 13 1 From factory to flagship: the urban transition towards the entrepreneurial megaproject 15 1.1 The rise of flagships 15 1.2 Theoretical context 17 1.3 Seven goals of flagships 20 1.4 Why the Netherlands and Scotland? 25 The Kop van Zuid, Rotterdam 25 Glasgow Harbour, Glasgow 35 Leith, Edinburgh 45 1.5 Goal and main research questions 52 1.6 Outline and research methods 53 References 55 2 Global flagships, local impacts 61 Abstract 61 2.1 Introduction 61 2.2 Creating the wealth: the ideology and context of flagships in the 1980s and 1990s 62 2.3 Urban regeneration evolves: new flagships and approaches since 1997 64 2.4 Critiques of flagships 66 2.4.1 Conflicting visions of the city 66 2.4.2 Flagships as a diversion for the masses: bread versus circuses 67 2.4.3 Greater socio-economic polarisation 68 2.4.4 Greater spatial polarisation 69 2.5 Conclusions 70 References 71 3 Variations of the entrepreneurial city: goals, roles and visions in Rotterdam’s Kop van Zuid and the Glasgow Harbour megaprojects 75 Abstract 75 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 The political-economic context: neoliberalism and the entrepreneurial city 77 3.3 Rotterdam’s Kop van Zuid: municipally-led waterfront regeneration 80 5 3.3.1 Vision for the Kop van Zuid 80 3.3.2 Goals of the Kop van Zuid 81 3.3.3 Roles of actors 83 3.3.4 Conflicting ideas and visions 84 3.4 Glasgow Harbour: developer-led waterfront regeneration 84 3.4.1 Goals and visions of Glasgow Harbour 85 3.4.2 Roles of actors 85 3.4.3 Conflicting visions and criticisms of Glasgow Harbour 86 3.5 Conclusions 88 References 90 4 ‘We’re a rich city with poor people:’ state strategies of new-build gentrification in Rotterdam and Glasgow 93 Abstract 93 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 On the changing forms of gentrification 95 4.2.1 Arguments for and against new-build gentrification 95 4.2.2 Gentrification as an urban strategy 96 4.3 Methodology 98 4.4 Municipality-led waterfront regeneration in Rotterdam 99 4.4.1 Rotterdam and the Kop van Zuid 99 4.4.2 Attracting high-income residents: an explicit municipal goal 100 4.4.3 Attracting high-income residents: the role of the Kop van Zuid 102 4.5 Developer-led new-build in Glasgow Harbour 103 4.5.1 Glasgow and its waterfront 103 4.5.2 The need for residents: Glasgow’s (high-end) housing needs 104 4.5.3 The need for residents: the role of Glasgow Harbour 106 4.6 Conclusions and discussion 108 References 110 5 Resident perceptions of flagship waterfront regeneration: the case of the Kop van Zuid in Rotterdam 115 Abstract 115 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 The impact of flagships on cities and their inhabitants 117 5.2.1 Goals of flagships 117 5.2.2 Resident responses to flagships 118 5.2.3 Factors influencing residents’ perceptions towards flagships 120 5.3 Rotterdam and the Kop van Zuid 122 5.4 Methodology and neighbourhoods 124 5.5 Analysis of residents’ perceptions 126 5.5.1 Neighbourhood-based responses 126 5.5.2 Socioeconomic and demographic based responses 128 5.6 Conclusions and discussion 131 References 133 6 6 Living through gentrification: subjective experiences of local, non-gentrifying residents in Leith, Edinburgh 137 Abstract 137 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 The consequences of gentrification 139 6.2.1 Housing and displacement 139 6.2.2 Services and amenities 140 6.2.3 Social cohesion and interactions 141 6.3 Methodology 142 6.4 Leith: a gentrifying neighbourhood 143 6.5 Housing and displacement 146 6.6 Retail and amenity change 147 6.7 Social interactions 149 6.8 Conclusions 150 References 152 7 Whose gain, whose loss? The maximisation of flagship spaces 155 7.1 Introduction: the research questions revisited 155 7.2 Urban entrepreneurialism in the Kop van Zuid and Glasgow Harbour 157 7.3 Goals revisited: lessons learned from the objectives of flagships 158 7.4 Future research and further questions 161 7.5 Who really profits from these developments? 162 7.6 Maximising potential: a final vision for urban redevelopment 167 References 171 Appendix A 173 Interviews 173 Appendix B 175 B-1 Survey Questionnaire Kralingen Oost and Spangen 175 B-2 Survey Questionnaire Afrikaanderwijk 182 B-3 Survey Questionnaire Kop van Zuid-Entrepot 189 Samenvatting 197 Curriculum Vitae 205 7 Figures 1.1 Conceptual model 20 1.2 Map of Europe 24 1.3 Map of Rotterdam 26 1.4 Map of the Kop van Zuid 27 1.5 The Wilhelmina Pier 29 1.6 Hotel New York 29 1.7 The Erasmus Bridge and the River Nieuwe Maas 30 1.8 Tram crossing the Erasmus Bridge en route to Rotterdam South 30 1.9 The Court House at the Wilhelmina Plein 31 1.10 The Luxor Theatre and the Wilhelmina Plein 31 1.11 The Entrepot building. 32 1.12 The Maas tower (Maastoren) under construction, Wilhelmina Plein 32 1.13 Spoorhaven (Railway Harbour). Mix of housing and offices 33 1.14 Landtong development along the Spoorhaven 33 1.15 Single-family housing in the Stadstuinen section of Kop van Zuid 34 1.16 Single-family housing in the Stadstuinen section of Kop van Zuid 34 1.17 Map of Glasgow 36 1.18 Map of Glasgow Harbour, Partick and Govan 37 1.19 Ariel view of Glasgow Harbour 38 1.20 Glasgow Harbour development 39 1.21 Glasgow Harbour from Castlebank Street 39 1.22 Glasgow Harbour Phase One 40 1.23 Glasgow Harbour Phase One 40 1.24 Glasgow Harbour Phase Two 41 1.25 Glasgow Harbour Phase Two 41 1.26 Clydeside Expressway (northern boundary of Glasgow Harbour). 42 1.27 Underpass through Clydeside Expressway 42 1.28 Pedestrian bridge over the Clydeside Expressway 43 1.29 Ariel view, artist’s rendering of the new Transport Museum 44 1.30 Ariel view, artist’s rendering of the new Transport Museum 44 1.31 Ariel view of the new Transport Museum (under construction) 44 1.32 Map of Edinburgh 45 1.33 Map of Leith 46 1.34 Traditional tenement housing in Leith 47 1.35 Social housing in Leith (Kirkgate) 47 1.36 Newbuild flats along the waterfront 48 1.37 ‘Love Leith’ development under construction (2006) 48 1.38 Scottish Executive offices 49 9 1.39 Ocean Terminal Shopping Centre 49 1.40 The Royal Yacht Britannia 50 1.41 The Shore 50 1.42 Great Junction Street 51 1.43 New Kirkgate Shopping Centre 51 4.1 Development of gentrification in the Kop van Zuid 102 4.2 Development of gentrification in Glasgow Harbour 107 5.1 Map of the Kop van Zuid 123 5.2 Rotterdam and the four survey neighbourhoods 125 7.1 Vuurplaat 170 7.2 Vuurplaat 170 10 Tables 1.1 Strategies of urban entrepreneurialism 19 5.1 Neighbourhood-based perceptions and potential responses 122 5.2 Incomes in Dutch cities 123 5.3 Neighbourhood income characteristics 125 5.4 Survey Response Rates 126 5.5 Neighbourhood based responses (I) General Perceptions 127 5.6 Neighbourhood based responses (II) Criticisms of Flagships 128 5.7 Neighbourhood based responses (III) Kop van Zuid Goals 129 5.8 Perceptions of the Kop van Zuid per age category 130 7.1 Implementation of urban entrepreneurial strategies in Glasgow and Rotterdam flagships 158 A1 Interviews with Rotterdam stakeholders 173 A2 Interviews with Glasgow Stakeholders 174 A3 Interviews with Edinburgh Stakeholders 174 11 Preface In Utrecht Central Station there used to be a series of quotes that greeted passengers as they left the station.