COLOR ME CAPABLE: THE RISE OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN NURSE FACULTY AT LINCOLN SCHOOL FOR NURSES, 1898 TO 1961 by Ashley Graham-Perel Dissertation Committee: Professor Sandra Lewenson, Sponsor Professor Eileen Engelke Approved by the Committee on the Degree of Doctor of Education Date 19 May 2021 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education in Teachers College, Columbia University 2021 ABSTRACT COLOR ME CAPABLE: THE RISE OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN NURSE FACULTY AT LINCOLN SCHOOL FOR NURSES, 1898 to 1961 Ashley Graham-Perel The recruitment of diverse nurse faculty fosters culturally competent teaching, role modeling of cultural awareness, and mentorship for diverse nursing students. However, with regard to the evolution of New York City’s diversity, the nursing profession has historically failed to parallel the societal transformation. This researcher investigated nursing education’s past in regard to race and ethnicity through the historical case study of one of New York City’s first schools established to educate Black women in nursing arts, namely, the Lincoln School for Nurses of the Bronx, New York. The lack of diversity within nursing is not an issue that developed overnight. Deficiencies of diverse nurse educators have been associated with decreased numbers of enrolled minority students, insufficient percentages of minority nursing staff, and the negative stimuli on healthcare that stemmed from unconscious biases and healthcare disparities. This researcher employed the historical research method and accessed archival materials (both primary and secondary sources) to study the Lincoln School for Nurses. The findings of this study identified the progressive development of African-American nursing students in New York and the pivotal role African American nursing faculty have played in the education of Black nurses. Along with the historical study of the Lincoln School for Nurses, biographical sketches of prominent graduates and leaders (such as Adah B. Samuels Thoms and Ivy Nathan Tinkler) were presented. Furthermore, previous studies of Lincoln School for Nurses’ institution and educational standards, such as the Ethel Johns Report of 1925 and the 1930 study of the school by Isabel M. Stewart and Teachers College, Columbia University, were investigated. The presence of structural racism and discrimination influenced the growth and development of Black nursing faculty in history and, arguably, set the foundation for Blacks in nursing education of present-day. It is vital that researchers examine the origins of this dilemma and provide clarity to the events and experiences that influenced the nursing profession’s current state of diversity, prior to attempting to resolve an issue that took decades to cultivate. © Copyright Ashley Graham-Perel 2021 All Rights Reserved ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When I made the decision to go back to school to advance my education, my family and loved ones asked a one-word question, “Again?!” Needless to say, as an avid lifelong learner, they have become used to me being a student and understood the determination and flexibility needed to fulfill such a goal. However, what they might not easily recognize is how much I appreciated and depended on them every step of the way. The successful completion of this study would not have been possible without God and them, and for that reason it gives me great pleasure to thank them (each by name) in this acknowledgment section. The first person I must thank is my extraordinary and unbelievably supportive dissertation sponsor, Dr. Sandra Lewenson. I met Dr. Lewenson during my early semesters at Teachers College, and it was as if the stars aligned! Dr. Lewenson introduced me to nursing history and made me realize that this was where I wanted to exert my research efforts. Dr. Lewenson, you are more of an inspiration to me than you know. Thank you for always being there for me, cheering me on, and guiding me along this beautiful journey! My sincerest acknowledgment and gratitude is extended to Dr. Elaine Rigolosi. Dr. Rigolosi, I thank you for your leadership at Teachers College, your mentorship, and consistent and unyielding guidance with this dissertation. It was an honor to be your student, and I will forever be appreciative for the love of research you’ve instilled in me. Thank you! A historian is only as good as her resources. That being said, completing historical research during a pandemic and with limited access to resources was definitely a challenge. However, the guidance of archivists throughout New York made this research possible. Thank you to Bridgett Pride and Rhonda Evans of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and Deborah Elliot and Cathryn Welch of the Center for iii Nursing at the Foundation of New York State Nurses for going the extra mile and assisting me with my historical research! To the 2018 EdD cohort, or as I call them—my TC sisters, namely, Maria Arias, JeanMarie Moorehead, Nicole Mascellaro, Jamie Trexler, and Tricia Sanders, I can wholeheartedly say that I could not have done this without you. You each have individually uplifted me in your own special way, and I am sincerely grateful. Thank you for your support, encouragement, laughs, and making Fridays the best day of the week! To my family and loved ones, a few paragraphs will never do my gratitude justice (for that could be a dissertation of its own!), but I will do my best. To my dearest mother and best friend, Rosa Graham, I am who I am because of you. A girl could never ask for a better mother, supporter, cheerleader, and friend. I dedicate this dissertation, my credentials, and degree to you. To the remainder of the family: my late Grandma Maureen, Tia Vilma, sisters Tiffany and Deshannique, cousins Jasmine, Rodney, Juhnniette, Damiyis, and T.J., and my nephew William, your love and support always pushed me forward. Thank you for everything, and it is an honor to make you proud. To my partner, Christopher, you have been there from the beginning to the end of this journey. I thank you for your love, encouragement, and constant reassurance. Lastly, to my friends, Kris-Ann, Carmen, and Adana, thank you for always being there for me, reading through my endless drafts, and reminding me that this was doable. To all of my colleagues, friends, and family, I thank you for every bit of guidance and support you’ve given me. I could not have done this without you and am delighted to share this success with you! A. G.-P. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE .................................................................................................................... ix Chapter I—MOVING FORWARD BY LOOKING BACK .........................................1 Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................1 Defining Race ...........................................................................................3 Historical Method: Political Framework ...........................................................6 Race-based Politics of Nursing Education ................................................7 Major Questions to be Asked .............................................................................9 Justification for the Study ................................................................................11 Definition of Terms..........................................................................................13 Assumptions ....................................................................................................15 Delimitations ...................................................................................................16 Significance......................................................................................................17 Summary ..........................................................................................................20 Chapter II—HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF NURSING EDUCATION.....................21 Historical Context of Study Development .......................................................21 Integration of the Negro Nurse During Crises ........................................23 The Black Hospital Movement ...............................................................23 Integration versus Segregation in Nursing Education ...........................25 Professionalization of Nursing and Racial Conflict ...............................29 National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses (1908-1951) ............30 Description and Location of the Data Sources ...............................................31 Primary Sources .....................................................................................31 Secondary Sources .................................................................................32 Description of Previous Works ........................................................................33 Feasibility at Investigation ..............................................................................34 Availability of Data Sources ..................................................................34 Adequacy of Data Sources .....................................................................35 Condition of Data Sources .....................................................................36 Data Collection Outline ..................................................................................36 Summary .........................................................................................................37