Spaces of Recognition An analysis of Somali-Danish associational engagement and diasporic mobilization Nauja Kleist Ph.d.-afhandling Sociologisk Institut Spaces of Recognition An analysis of Somali-Danish associational engagement and diasporic mobilization © Nauja Kleist Ph.d.-afhandling Sociologisk Institut Københavns Universitet Indleveret til bedømmelse: December 2006 Offentligt forsvar: April 2007 Hovedvejleder: Lars Bo Kaspersen, Sociologisk Institut Bivejleder: Ninna Nyberg Sørensen, Dansk Institut for Internationale Studier Bedømmelsesudvalg: Peter Gundelach, Sociologisk Institut (formand) Peggy Levitt, Sociology Department, Wellesley College Anita H. Fábos, School of Social Science, Media and Cultural Studies, University of East London Omslag: Klavs B. Thomsen Opsætning: Anne-Lise Schulze Andersen ISBN-13: 978-87-7296-242-9 ISBN-10: 87-7296-242-9 2 Table of contents PART I DEPARTURES................................................................................. 9 Chapter 1 Introduction................................................................................... 11 Puzzles and concerns.................................................................................... 12 Research questions ....................................................................................... 17 Processes of inclusion and transnationalism ................................................ 18 Integration or inclusion? .......................................................................... 19 Transnational involvement....................................................................... 20 Recognition and positioning .................................................................... 22 Contributions of the study ............................................................................ 23 Organization of the study ............................................................................. 24 Chapter 2 The theoretical journey. Locations and destinations ................. 27 Constructed and co-constructed social realities............................................ 27 Situated knowledges ................................................................................ 29 Three mappings ............................................................................................ 31 Simultaneous engagement............................................................................ 33 The transnational turn .............................................................................. 33 Modes of incorporation and transnationalism.......................................... 36 Associations in Denmark ......................................................................... 38 Migrant associations in a transnational perspective................................. 41 Fields and social space............................................................................. 43 Diaspora ....................................................................................................... 46 Between transnational communities and diasporic identification............ 47 A Somali ‘diaspora’? ............................................................................... 48 Diaspora as claim and aspiration ............................................................. 49 Recognition .................................................................................................. 52 Between intact identity formation and participation................................ 52 Considerations and questions................................................................... 56 Differentiation and cultural intelligibility................................................ 58 Chapter resume: Linking the three mappings............................................... 62 Chapter 3 Directions. Methodological considerations and analytical strategies......................................................................................... 65 Analytical principles..................................................................................... 65 Location-work: Defining and exploring ‘the field’.................................. 65 Asking, looking, listening........................................................................ 67 The research site and the process ................................................................. 69 The positioned researcher ........................................................................ 74 Producing and processing data ..................................................................... 77 The informants......................................................................................... 78 3 The interviews ..........................................................................................80 From fieldwork to analysis.......................................................................81 Chapter resume: From theory to data to analysis..........................................83 PART II ACROSS BORDERS.......................................................................85 Chapter 4 Journeys and settlements. Outline of the Somali political and migration history .......................................................................87 Stories of Somali culture...............................................................................88 Colonialism...................................................................................................93 Colonial migration....................................................................................94 ‘I always wanted to be a sailor’: Mohamed..............................................95 Independence ................................................................................................96 Oil workers ...............................................................................................98 ‘I became another person’: Aisha...........................................................100 Civil war......................................................................................................101 Refugees .................................................................................................104 ‘The war never stopped’: Omar..............................................................106 Transnational connections...........................................................................109 ‘Some of us were born here, so we think it’s pretty normal’: Halima....111 Continued migrations .............................................................................113 Chapter resume: Scattered dreams and changing mobility .........................114 Chapter 5 Ambivalent encounters. Life in Denmark .................................117 From multi-national state to small nation-state...........................................117 Guest workers and refugees....................................................................120 Somalis in Denmark....................................................................................123 In the eye of the hurricane ......................................................................126 Ambivalent encounters................................................................................132 ‘It’s like Denmark has two faces’: Saphia and Fatuma ..........................133 ‘You have to manage your life’: Mahmoud and Abdirizak....................136 Gender change and gender nostalgia...........................................................139 Masculinity at risk ..................................................................................141 Identifications and categorizations..............................................................145 Between strangeness, Danishness and Somaliness.................................148 Recognizing difference...........................................................................149 Chapter resume: Ambivalence and (mis)recognition..................................152 Chapter 6 ‘Making a difference’. Somali-Danish associational engagement.....................................................................................................155 The Somali-Danish associational field........................................................156 Fiery souls: A history of Somali-Danish associations ............................158 ‘In Denmark, you need to organize yourself to be heard’: Gelle............161 Social principles of organization.................................................................163 4 Gendered and religious spaces............................................................... 163 Clan affiliation ....................................................................................... 167 Territorialization of loyalties ................................................................. 171 Continuums of identification ................................................................. 174 The Women’s Association ......................................................................... 175 Three afternoons in August and September........................................... 177 Dealing with everyday challenges ......................................................... 179 ‘I was always a nationalist’: Noora........................................................ 182 Learning processes ..................................................................................... 185 New political culture and opportunities................................................. 187 Establishing and negotiating positions ......................................................