����������������� �������� ���������������������������������� �������� ����������������� �������� ����������������������������� �������� ��������������� �������� ������������������ ���������������������������� � ����������������� THE REVIEW OF THE volume 1 FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS volume 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY volume 3 COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVES REPORT volume 4 RESEARCH PAPERS volume 5 LITERATURE REVIEWS THE HONOURABLE ROY MCMURTRY DR. ALVIN CURLING This report is available online at: www.rootsofyouthviolence.on.ca © Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2008 ISBN 978-1-4249-7989-9 (Print set of 5) ISBN 978-1-4249-7994-3 (Print Volume 5) ISBN 978-1-4249-7995-0 (PDF set of 5) ISBN 978-1-4249-8000-0 (PDF Volume 5) ISBN 978-1-4249-8011-6 (CD-ROM) The Review has commissioned a number of literature reviews and research papers to help fulfill its mandate. Some of the leading Canadian experts in the fields of criminology, sociology and race relations have authored these materials. The opinions expressed in each paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of the Review or its Co-Chairs. Veuillez noter que le Volume 4 et le Volume 5 de cette publication hautement spécialisée n'est disponible qu'en anglais en vertu du règlement 411/97, qui en exempte I'application de la Loi sur les services en français. Copies are available from: ServiceOntario Publications 777 Bay Street, Market Level Toronto, Ontario M5G 2C8 Telephone: (416) 326-5300 Toll-free: 1-800-668-9938 TTY Toll-free: 1-800-268-7095 Website: www.publications.serviceontario.ca Contents The Root Causes of Youth Violence: A Review of Major Theoretical Perspectives .........1 Introduction.............................................................................................................3 Biosocial Theory......................................................................................................7 Psychological Theories ..........................................................................................25 Rational Choice and Routine Activities Theory .....................................................41 Social Disorganization Theory...............................................................................53 Economic Deprivation...........................................................................................69 Strain Theories.......................................................................................................81 Social Learning Theories .......................................................................................99 The Subculture of Violence ..................................................................................113 Social Learning, the Media and Violence.............................................................141 Perceptions of Injustice, Crime and Violence .......................................................163 Social Control and Self-Control Theories.............................................................183 Integrated Life Course Theories...........................................................................197 Critical Perspectives on Violence .........................................................................209 Conclusion...........................................................................................................227 Preventing Youth Crime and Violence: A Review of the Literature.............................229 Introduction.........................................................................................................231 Aggressive Policing Strategies ..............................................................................235 Community Policing Strategies............................................................................257 Deterrence Strategies ...........................................................................................283 Rehabilitation Strategies ......................................................................................315 Early Childhood Development Strategies.............................................................343 School-Based Strategies .......................................................................................365 Employment Strategies ........................................................................................415 Mentoring Strategies ............................................................................................433 Sports-Based Strategies ........................................................................................477 Arts and Recreational Strategies ..........................................................................501 Community Development Strategies....................................................................531 Conclusion...........................................................................................................557 Roots Review • iii The Root Causes of Youth Violence: A Review of Major Theoretical Perspectives A Report Prepared for the Review of the Roots of Youth Violence Scot Wortley Associate Professor, Centre of Criminology, University of Toronto With Randy Seepersad Andrea Mcalla Rashmee Singh Natasha Madon Carolyn Greene Nicole Myers Terrance Roswell July 2008 Roots Review • 1 Volume 5: Literature Reviews 2 • Roots Review Introduction Violent crime involving youth can take many shapes and forms and involve many different types of people. The following cases, for example, represent the many types of violent crime that have taken place in Ontario over the past decade: A gang member is beaten up and robbed by a rival gang. He reports this victimization to his fellow gang members. They retaliate by shooting and killing one of their rivals in the parking lot of a local shopping mall. One young man insults another's girlfriend at a nightclub. The victim retaliates by punching the offender in the face. The two are thrown out of the nightclub. The fight continues on the street, where one youth is stabbed to death. A young man forces his new girlfriend to have sex against her will. She does not report the crime to her parents or to the police. A drug dealer severely beats a customer who can't repay a drug debt. Three youths severely beat a stranger, threaten him with a gun, and rob him of his coat, wallet, and cellphone. A brawl breaks out between players at an amateur hockey game. Fans engage in fights in the stands. Numerous charges are laid. A local gang shoots to death a stranger they believe is selling drugs on their turf. A group of friends bully another student by threatening her, calling her names and excluding her from group activities. A young man brings a gun to a park in order to threaten a group of youths who have been assaulting and teasing him over the past two years. A young woman experiences threats and assaults at school because of the colour of her skin. Roots Review • 3 Volume 5: Literature Reviews These are only a few examples of the types of violent incidents that sometimes take place in our society. The first question that often emerges when faced with such acts of violence is, why? Why did this crime occur? What motivated the offenders to engage in this type of behaviour? Can one theory or explanation account for all of these incidents? Or can violence be caused by multiple factors? Discovering and documenting the root causes of crime and violence has been a primary objective of crime scholars for over a hundred years. It is widely believed that if we can only identify the cause or causes of criminality, we will be better able to prevent violence in the first place, or at least be in a position to punish, treat, or rehabilitate those identified as violent offenders. A number of academic disciplines – including anthropology, biology, criminology, psychiatry, psychology, social work, and sociology – have developed specific theories to explain the onset and persistence of violent behaviour. Some of these theories focus on how individual propensities – including biological and psychological disorders – increase the probability of violence. At the other end of the spectrum, structural theories propose that variables like poverty, oppression, social inequality and racism must be considered in any explanation of violent behaviour. Still others maintain that the source of violence lies in family dynamics, neighbourhood characteristics or peer socialization processes. It is quite difficult to negotiate and organize the plethora of ideas, hypotheses and empirical findings that mark the study of crime and violence. The purpose of this report is to briefly outline major theories that have examined the root causes of crime and violence. A full discussion of the many studies and research results associated with each of these theoretical perspectives is well beyond the scope of this document. Indeed, a quick examination of the reference section will reveal that volumes have already been devoted to each of the theories reviewed below. Thus, the purpose of this report is to review the major principles or concepts associated with each theory, examine major research findings that either support or refute these principles, and briefly discuss major policy implications. It should be noted that this report is not concerned with evaluating whether the crime prevention programs or initiatives associated with each theory are effective. Program evaluation, however, is the focus of another report commissioned by the Review of the Roots of Youth Violence. The discussion below begins with