Born to migrate: South Asian women in Sydney and the convergence of marriage, migration and maternity in shaping their participation in the paid workforce Nila Sharma Bachelor of Science (Agricultural Science) Master of Social Science (Gender and Development Studies) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology Faculty of Arts Macquarie University, Sydney February 2016 Statement of Candidate I, Nila Sharma, state that this thesis entitled “Born to migrate: South Asian Women in Sydney and the convergence of marriage, migration and maternity in shaping their participation in the paid workforce” has not been previously submitted for a higher degree to any other university or institution other than Macquarie University. This thesis is an original piece of work and it has been written by me based on the data collected during my field work. Any help or assistance that I have received in my research work and during the preparation of this thesis has been appropriately acknowledged. The research presented in this thesis was approved by Macquarie University Ethics Review Committee, with ethics approval reference number: 5201200592 on September 26, 2012 Signed: Date: iii Acknowledgement The successful completion of this thesis is more than my individual effort. This thesis owes much, to many people. Foremost, I would like to acknowledge my principal supervisor, Dr Kalpana Ram. It was a great opportunity to have her as a mentor during my PhD. Her intellectual ability – though it was a big challenge to cope with – has given me enormous inspiration throughout the journey. I would not have been able to complete this thesis without her invaluable instructions and guidance until the last minute of my submission. Dr Fei Guo, as my associate supervisor, has been a wonderful source of intellectual stimulation. I would not have successfully learned demography without her invaluable instructions and many one-on-one tutorials on the subject matter. I appreciate her generous availability. Her easily approachable personality enabled me to ask for help whenever I needed. Dr Greg Downey, as my second associate supervisor as well as the head of the department, has supported and encouraged me through the entire PhD process. I am indebted to him for generously offering his time reading several drafts of my chapters. His constructive feedbacks were invaluable in shaping this entire thesis. It is his appreciation and encouragement that helped me thrive enduring the duration of the PhD. I am equally thankful to Dr Estelle Dryland for supporting me by reading several drafts of my thesis and enabling me to raise my writing standard. There are many other colleagues in the department who have provided thoughtful comments in several drafts of my chapters. I am grateful to Michaela for her important comments on various chapters. I am thankful to Joe and Gillian for their enduring support throughout the iv process. Also my friends Nasreen, Shruti, Lindy, Mariske, and Tomas, all our intellectual conservations were very useful. Above all, special thanks go to Ms Payel Ray. Payel has been more than just an administrative help. She has been a good friend and social support for me throughout my PhD. Being a fellow South Asian, I have discussed themes of all my chapters with her. In the field, I would like to thank all my participants who showed their willingness to participate in the research and shared their invaluable migratory experiences with me. Among all, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Ms Shanta Viswanathan who has been a continuous source of support throughout my data collection. I am grateful to SEVA and especially to Mr Kalyan Ram for his generous help for my project. Mr Ram has also provided me with various exposures within South Asian communities in Sydney which have helped me build and extend strong community networks during the process of my PhD. Finally, there is my family. My husband Manoj has supported me unconditionally throughout my PhD. I could not have completed this PhD without his help for the entire duration. I am thankful to my son Ishaan, whose arrival during my PhD has been a motivation. His arrival has played as an antidote to the world of theories and scholarships. Lastly, I would like to thank my family members, my parents, and in-laws who supported me directly and indirectly. v Table of Contents Statement of Candidate ...................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................... iv Abstract ............................................................................................................................. viii List of Maps ......................................................................................................................... x List of Charts ....................................................................................................................... x List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... x Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Who is South Asian? ...................................................................................................... 5 Understanding South Asian Migration to Australia ......................................................... 7 Gender and Migration: Women, Work and wellbeing ....................................................11 Methodology .................................................................................................................14 Doing Research as an Insider .........................................................................................21 Limitations and Challenges............................................................................................27 An Overview of the Thesis ............................................................................................30 Chapter 2 Demography of South Asian Migrant Population in Australia .......................32 Introduction ...................................................................................................................32 Flows of South Asian Migrants to Australia since World War II ....................................34 Geographical Distribution ..............................................................................................43 Ages and Sex Structures of South Asian Migrants in Australia ......................................53 English Language Proficiency among South Asian-born Populations in Australia..........57 Educational Attainment .................................................................................................59 Labour Market Performance of South Asian Immigrants ...............................................65 Income Structure of South Asian-born Peoples in Australia ...........................................72 Chapter͵Labour Market Experiences of South Asian Women in Sydney ....................81 Introduction ...................................................................................................................81 Skilled Migration and Gender: Biases in the Definition of Skill and Implications for Women as Migrants .......................................................................................................85 Gender Bias in Pre-Migration Education and Training ...................................................90 Invisible Migrants..........................................................................................................94 Language ..................................................................................................................... 104 Chapter 4 Marriage as Migration .................................................................................... 113 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 113 vi Marriage and Migration ............................................................................................... 126 An Incoming Stranger ................................................................................................. 131 Migration and Racism ................................................................................................. 136 Migrants and Adjustment ............................................................................................ 145 Chapter 5 Maternity......................................................................................................... 153 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 153 The Social Organisation of Maternity and Female Subordination ................................ 154 The Community Centre ............................................................................................... 158 Marriage and Maternity in South Asia ......................................................................... 171 Mothering in Sydney: Migration and Maternal Work .................................................. 178 Sexual Division of Labour in the Area of