CHAPTER �� The Morisco Hell The Significance and Relevance of Aljamiado Texts for Muslim Eschatology and Islamic Literature Roberto Tottoli In a recent monograph, Stephen J. Shoemaker highlights the relevance of Aljamiado literature for the historiography of early Islam. In his discussion of the different versions of a second/eighth-century letter ascribed to the caliph ʿUmar II (r. 99–101/717–20) and addressed to the Byzantine emperor Leo III (r. 717–41 CE), he mentions an Aljamiado translation, longer than those found in other versions written in different languages.1 As such, the Aljamiado ver- sion has long been considered a Morisco enlargement or even a complete forgery. Shoemaker, who builds on the earlier work of Jean-Marie Gaudeul,2 brilliantly shows that the Aljamiado text is in fact more closely related to the original Arabic than the shorter versions, which are instead abridgments of the original. This constitutes a rare occasion on which an Aljamiado text is used by a scholar of Islam to corroborate evidence found in Arabic or other Near Eastern works. Although Aljamiado literature exhibits a number of note- worthy characteristics, it is rarely taken into consideration in studies of the diffusion of Arabic and Islamic motifs and reports. In fact, the many compre- hensive and rich studies related to Aljamiado writings are the products of the work of specialists in Romance philology, scholars who discuss the linguistic evidence found in these works and address other questions related to the envi- ronment in Iberia rather than to the Islamic contents of the Aljamiado corpus. This is surprising for a number of reasons. The Aljamiado texts are neither very numerous nor do they reproduce the works of major Muslim authors, but they have the peculiarity of constituting a relatively homogeneous literary * This paper would not have been written without the help of Juan Carlos Villaverde (Oviedo) who helped me by providing many materials and sources. I thank him for reading a first draft of this article and for his suggestions. 1 Shoemaker, Death of a Prophet 60–1. 2 Gaudeul, Correspondence between Leo and ʿUmar. © Roberto Tottoli, ���6 | doi ��.��63/978900430�368_0�3 This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 Unported (CC-BY-NC 3.0) License. Roberto Tottoli - 9789004301368 Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 08:08:03AM via free access The Morisco Hell �69 corpus.3 In Arabic literature, particularly late Arabic literature, this is a rar- ity. Traditional Arabic literature is conservative so that, for example, classical Arabic is consistently used within it. In addition, popular, late remakings of this literature are usually anonymous. These two issues usually give rise to a major problem: how to connect texts to a specific time and place, and thus how to use this literature as evidence for a particular historical, cultural or social context. In this regard, Aljamiado texts are an interesting counter-example, since the community that they refer to, as well as the conditions in which this community lived, are well known, namely being the minority Morisco com- munity who suffered gradual erosion under Castilian and Spanish domination. In addition, the places (in Iberia) and the times of production (mid-ninth/ fifteenth to early eleventh/seventeenth century) of these texts are usually well known. As such, from the point of view of the historian of Islamic literature and traditions, cross-checking Morisco texts against other Muslim literature and traditions allows one to understand the circulation of those traditions and literature in that specific place and at that time. Aljamiado literature also pro- vides a useful way of understanding the circulation of Muslim Arabic literature in Spain, North Africa and the entire Muslim world, while throwing into relief the specificities of Aljamiado texts in relation to Islamic literature as a whole. Aljamiado manuscripts and texts can also provide insights into a number of religious subject-matters in addition to what they tell us about adab literature, law and other literary genres. Pious devotion to the Prophet Muḥammad, stories of the prophets, and legendary reports about the battles fought by Muḥammad and his early companions, especially ʿAlī, are favorite topics. Eschatology, too, has some relevance in the Aljamiado corpus, and among the texts devoted to this subject some offer descriptions of hell. This chapter is devoted to the anal- ysis of this Aljamiado literature on hell. Its aim is to ascertain their specific, or non-specific, concerns or peculiarities in relation to Islamic literature as a whole. A study of these Aljamiado versions can, as we shall see, contribute to a better understanding of the relations between Arabic sources and Aljamiado 3 I am aware of the fact that Aljamiado manuscripts were written in different places and thus show specific peculiarities, and that the modes of production of manuscripts were different at the beginning of tenth/sixteenth century from those prevalent at the end of it. However, I believe that the examination of the spatio-temporal embeddedness of manuscripts produces more relevant results in respect to linguistic and historical questions. As for the properly religious content of Aljamiado texts, from the point of view of the Islamicist the Morisco experience appears as rather homogeneous. Roberto Tottoli - 9789004301368 Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 08:08:03AM via free access �70 Tottoli Spanish versions, and also suggest some hypotheses for the diffusion of the manuscripts that preserve versions of them. 1 Spanish Islamic Eschatological Literature The question as to when Islamic literary works or even non-literary documents produced in Romance and then Spanish vernaculars first emerged is debated. What is of most significance to our discussion is that, from the fifteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century, texts related to Islamic traditions and liter- ature circulated in the Iberian peninsula and among Muslims of Iberian origin according to differing modalities. Manuscript remains and historical evidence bearing testimony to the special social conditions of Spanish communities attest to a complex situation, and there is clear evidence of the circulation amongst Muslims living in these communities of works written in Arabic, in Spanish using Roman script, and in Spanish with Arabic characters.4 The texts preserved in these manuscripts deal with various subjects, rang- ing from translations of the Quran to literary works. Notwithstanding the wide range of typologies attested and the various definitions proffered by schol- ars to characterize the various texts, religious ideas are a consistent part of them,5 and eschatology constitutes one of the main topics in these texts. Thus, Galmés de Fuentes refers to eschatology in a list of ten major topics of Morisco literature in Aljamiado,6 while Bernabé Pons in his more analytical listing also includes eschatological narratives (relatos escatológicos).7 There are many further examples. Concern for eschatological matters is, for instance, clearly 4 On this point see Casassas Canals, La literatura islámica castellana 92–5. Casassas Canals offers some important preliminary statements and rightly points out that the Spanish of Aljamiado texts is a Muslim vernacular like any other vernacular of Muslim minorities in other parts of the Islamic world. He also correctly laments how little attention Aljamiado literature has received from Arabists and Islamicists. See ibid. 108. See also Maria J. Viguera in her preface to Urrea de Jalón, 20. On the complex linguistic situation see also Harvey, Muslims in Spain 122–3. 5 See on this point Bernabé Pons, Los manuscritos aljamiados, and Wiegers, Islamic Literature 1. As these point out, one of the three major areas of production of Aljamiado literature, which is based entirely on translations, is religion, while entertainment and handbooks of practical matters are the other two. Other scholars emphasize that original works were in fact produced; these texts are mostly on religious matters. See Harvey, Muslims in Spain 168; Montaner Frutos, El recontamiento 40; Martínez de Castilla Muñoz, Una biblioteca morisca 41. 6 Galmés de Fuentes, Estudios 29, 88–9. 7 Bernabé Pons, Los manuscritos aljamiados 33. Roberto Tottoli - 9789004301368 Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 08:08:03AM via free access The Morisco Hell �7� attested as early as the works of Yça de Segovia (fl. c. 850/1450) who, in his work Thirteen Articles—which contains a Muslim creed—devotes a large section to eschatological beliefs.8 In other instances, scholars of Aljamiado literature have highlighted a specific concern for eschatological works.9 However, the Aljamiado interest in eschatological matters should not be overstated as, when compared to Islamic literature as a whole, this is not of greater concern in the Aljamiado corpus of literature than it is elsewhere. This is because eschatol- ogy constitutes one of, if not the, major topics of the Quran and early Muslim traditions (hadith), while later Islamic literature also demonstrates a special concern for eschatological questions. Muslim creeds, from early times, also showcase the relevance of eschatological themes.10 Given this, it is difficult to follow Miguel Ángel Vázquez who states in his work on the conception of death among Moriscos that their literature displays an eschatological obses- sion diffused in the crypto-Muslim communities.11 Apart from