NORMATIVE SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF JOURNALISTS IN NIGERIA: THE CASE OF THE GUARDIAN NEWSPAPER A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of A Masters of Arts Degree in JOURNALISM AND MEDIA STUDIES At RHODES UNIVERSITY By JUDITH TIRI PROFESSOR HERMAN WASSERMAN (SUPERVISOR) DECEMBER 2013 ABSTRACT The study aims at interrogating the self-perceptions of journalists in Nigeria. The study is an attempt to answer some questions as: what contributions have journalists made to the democratization of Nigeria from 1960 to date? What role(s) did the media play during and after the transition to democracy? To what extent have the activities of politicians and the business class affected the media’s social responsibility? What are the self-perceptions of journalists working in Nigeria’s The Guardian newspaper? The studies on normative theories of the press, Journalism Culture, and the perceived influences on journalism practice in a democracy were adapted to answer the afore-listed questions. The works on how elite continuity and transitology models affect the perceptions of journalists in new democracies were also used to answer the questions posed. Since the field of research of the preceding works is the West, the Nigerian experience points to issues that were not addressed in the prior studies because of the latter’s unique socio-political, historical, economic and ethno- religious structures. The data were collected and analyzed according to the Qualitative paradigm, using in-depth semi-structured individual interviews with journalists working at The Guardian newspaper. The findings suggest that the journalists have made positive contributions to Nigeria’s democratization. The journalists that support this thesis claim that the self-perceptions of their role have changed from an adversarial position to a democratically-defined social responsibility role. This is because journalists ensure that government policies are implemented and the issues that affect the masses are reported. The findings show that in spite of the shift to democratization some challenges have remained, for example the journalists’ lives are not safe; they collect bribes which are popularly called brown envelopes in Nigeria, write biased stories, and hold partisan relationships with the politicians and entrepreneurial elites and so on. The study acknowledges that democratization is in a continuum and that (the stakeholders or) civil society, journalists, the state and the ii entrepreneurial elites must contribute to deepen Nigeria’s democracy. The study suggests a self-perception theory that uses individual structures and institutions of a country to guide the stakeholders to play roles that will deepen democracy. KEY WORDS: DEMOCRATIZATION, NEW DEMOCRACY, TRANSITOLOGY, ELITE CONTINUITY, NORMATIVE ROLES. iii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ANC – African National Congress AU – African Union FOI Act – Freedom of Information Act EU – European Union FRCN – Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria NTA – Nigerian Television Authority NUJ – National Union of Journalists ICT – Information and Communication Technology INEC – Independent National Electoral Commission SABC – South African Broadcasting Corporation USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republic iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am sincerely grateful to Rhodes University’s Council Research Fund for granting me bursaries in 2012 and 2013. This financial intervention helped pay my tuition and cater for other needs. I am very grateful to my employer, University of Jos, Nigeria, for granting me a study leave with pay to do a Master’s degree. This commitment of the University has led me to begin scholarly explorations in the field of journalism and democracy. Professor Herman Wasserman was both my supervisor and father indeed. ‘THANK YOU’ does not capture my appreciation of your thorough and supportive guidance. So I will say God bless you. Mrs. Helen Tiri (my mum), buddy, cheer lady and errand girl; thank you for your sacrifice and for being there always. To dad, Jugu, Yeiypyeng, Mafeng, Patience, Faith, Sandra and my extended family, I appreciate your calls, SMS and prayers. I am grateful for the support I received from friends and family like Niyi, Jireh, Jimme, Salome, Barnabas, Graysam, Nthabi, Mpho, Ana, Jessica, Blessing Azi, Rabi, Gift, Asang, Joy, Mwese, Nankwat, Blessing Dalyop, Julia, Felicia, Ajibola, Treasure, Gloria, Becky, Vanessa and Komlan. I cannot forget the care and support I got from dad and mum Makpu, mum Dul, mum Halima, mum Ess (a.k.a Aunty Ess), mum China, mum Edoghogho, Ngo Charity, just to mention few. Leo and Afiniki Bawa, Stella and Chris Abimiku, Lucius Imo, Charity, Clement Ior, John Goshit, Moses Daben, Peter Nwofu, Mummy Chollom, you proved to me that out of sight, is not out of mind. v DEDICATION To the fond and loving memories of my mum, Helen Gavou Chungyang Tiri and my maternal grandma, Ngo Hannatu Simon Tiri, two women that both nurtured and cared for me unconditionally. Mumy, your labor for my success and recent but timely transition to the other side of eternity reminds me of the scripture which reads, ‘Each one of these people of faith died not yet having in hand what was promised, but still believing. How did they do it? They saw it way off in the distance, waved their greeting, and accepted the fact that they were transients in this world. People who live this way make it plain that they are looking for their true home. If they were homesick for the old country, they could have gone back any time they wanted. But they were after a far better country than that—heaven country. You can see why God is so proud of them, and has a City waiting for them’. Hebrews 11:13-16 The Message. I will ensure that I turn your dreams to (excel and to make it to heaven) a reality, knowing that you have joined the cloud of witnesses and are cheering me on. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………..... ii Acronyms and Abbreviations…………………………………………………………..... iv Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………….. v Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………. vi Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………..... vii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Introduction..……………………………………………………………………………... 1 1.1 Research Background: Brief History of Nigeria’s Press: 18th C – 21st C…………. 3 1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………..……… 5 1.3 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………....... 7 1.4 Goals and Objectives of the Study…………………………………………………… 8 1.5 Methods, Procedures and Techniques…………………………………………...….. 11 1.6 Structure of the Study………………………………………………………………... 12 1.7 Thesis Outline………………………………………………………………………..... 13 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 14 2.2 Media Development in Third Wave Democracies: 1980s – 1990s…………………. 20 2.3 Democratization and Media Development in Nigeria (1960 to date)……………… 25 2.4 Normative Theories and Elements that Influence Media Practicein Democratic Societies………………………………………………………..…………………………... 33 2.4.1 The Monitorial Role ……………………………………………………………….. 35 2.4.2 The Facilitative Role ………………………………………………………...……... 35 2.4.3 The Radical Role……………………………………………………………………. 36 2.4.4 The Collaborative Role…………………………………………………………....... 38 2.5 The Universal Concept of Journalism Culture: Applying the theory……………... 40 2.5.1. Institutional Roles…………………………………………………………………. 41 2.5.2 Epistemologies………………………………………………………………………. 42 2.5.3 Ethical Ideologies………………………………………………………………........ 42 2.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….. 44 vii CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………... 47 3.2 Research Design and Procedure…………………………………………………...... 48 3.2.1 Qualitative Research: Basic Assumptions and Concepts………………………… 48 3.2.2 The Research Process………………………………………………………………. 50 3.2.3 Sampling Procedure: Sample Selection and Sample Size……………………....... 52 3.2.3.1 The Interview……………………………………………………………………... 52 3.3 Ethical Considerations……………………………………………………………...... 54 3.4 Data Collection Procedure.…………………………………………………………... 57 3.5 Data Analysis Procedure...…………………………………………………………… 57 3.7 Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………………... 59 3.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………. 60 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 61 4.2 Summary…………………………………………………………………………….... 62 4.2.1 The Pilot Study Interviews (January 2012)……………………………………..... 62 4.2.2 The Main Study’s Interviews (July 2012)………………………………………… 67 4.3 Framework Analysis: The Journalists’ Normative Role Perceptions…………....... 71 4.3.1 The Monitorial Role ……………………………………………………………….. 71 4.3.2 The Facilitative Role……………………………………………………………...... 72 4.3.3 The Radical Role………………………………………………………………........ 72 4.3.4 The Collaborative Role…………………………………………………………...... 73 4.4 Framework Analysis: The Influences on Journalism Practice…………………….. 74 4.4.1 Institutional Roles ………………………………………………………………...... 74 4.4.1.1 Interventionism: Neutral ‘low’…………………………………………………... 75 4.4.1.2 Interventionism: Adversary ‘high’…………………………………………......... 75 4.4.1.3 Power distance: Adversary ‘high’………………………………………………. 75 4.4.1.4 Power distance: Loyal low……………………………………………………...... 76 4.4.1.5 Market Orientation: High………………………………………………………... 76 4.4.1.6 Market Orientation: Low………………………………………………………… 76 4.4.2 Epistemologies …………………………………………………………………….... 77 4.4.2.1 Objectivism: Correspondence high…………………………………………….... 77 viii 4.4.2.2 Subjectivism low………………………………………………………………….. 77 4.4.2.3 Empiricism high…………………………………………………………………..