Conflict As Contradiction: A critical geopolitics of international conflict A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Geography at the University of Canterbury by Peter J. Mayell, B.A. Honours (Cant) "" Department of Geography University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand November 1996 li Abstract The conflict research subdiscipline within international relations commonly distinguishes international conflict between nation-states from civil war within nation­ states. By regarding conflict research as a state-centric geopolitical discourse the thesis challenges this categorisation because (1) of the many links and therefore blurry practical distinction between the two, and (2) stateless nations can be involved in conflict with other nations, thus constituting an 'international' conflict. To overcome this problem an alternative, nation-centric critical geopolitics of international conflict is proposed. In this way the thesis aims to extend both conflict research and critical geopolitics. To do this the critique utilises recent literature on the contemporary conceptualisation of nation and nationalism to argue against the conventional conflation of nation and state and to reconstruct the adjective "international". Recognising that nations can exist without also being states enables the conceptualisation of international, and when such nations come into conflict, either with other stateless nations or nations that are states, this becomes ~international conflict'. This typology allows for conventional 'international' conflict, or rather inter-state conflict, by distinguishing between ethnic and official nations. The theoretical argument is reinforced by consideration of an empirical case study, that of the Kurds of the Middle East. The Kurds are presented as a distinct and unique stateless nation, the largest in the world, in conflict with the Persian (Iran), Arab (Iraq), and Turkish (Turkey) nations that surround them .. The case study is undertaken through analysis of the Kurds and their national homeland of Kurdistan at the local, Middle Eastern, and global scales, each demonstrating in different ways the divergence of nation and state and, in the case of the latter two discussions, an example of an international conflict. ill Acknowledgments A vast array of people contributed in various ways to the completion of this thesis. These were all greatly appreciated, and I thank you most sincerely. My biggest thanks are given to my supervisor, Dr Michael Brown, whose perceptive and critical mind pushed me into 'doing geography' - or at least thinking about it -in many ways which I had not previously even considered as 'geographical': Geography is indeed more than 'X'! I thank him also for the many discussions - especially on post-modernism and post-structuralism! - and his proof reading and numerous suggestions. I also take this opportunity to thank other academic members of staff, notably Dr Peter Perry and Dr Andrew Church of the Geography Department for their proof reading and many useful comtilents that followed. I would also like to extend my thanks to two technical staff, Janet Bray and John Thyne, for their assistance with the production of some of the maps included in this thesis. Staying with academic thank you's: I must thank the University of Canterbury itself for granting me a Masters' Scholarship for the 1996 academic year. Without this assistance I would have been in much financial difficulty and would certainly be burdened ------' with a substantially larger student loan. I hope that such scholarships can survive the seemingly continuous and deepening cuts in tertiary funding. To the other geography masters' students, I extend my utmost annoyance with you all for never ceasing to distract me witl:l needless interruptions, silly sports games on Mondays and Fridays, continual barbs that the place I was studying did not exist (I hope this thesis proves to you that this place does exist, and .that you can now admit it), never ending hassles about the next Noble Troops ...... But seriously, my sincerest thanks go to Karl (especially, for the rides to and from Uni, which saved me from bilcing, and for the lessons on Vector), George, Jamie, ·Nic, Aridrew, Janan, and of course to Susan, the sanest one of them all, and who I was fortUnate enough to share my office with. The year would certainly not have been the same, nor as enjoyable, without you all. To Matt and Tim, two great friends who did masters' theses before me: Wish you both had still been around campus. I thank you both for your continued friendship outside these four walls. To Nigel: Thanks, brother, for those great nights out and, especially, for the hole in my wallet and the headaches in the morning. Lastly, but certainly by no means least, I come to my family. To Mum and Dad: Thanks so much for the continued :financial support and all th~ comforts of home. And Mum, can you please cook tea tonight? And Dad, there's live rugby on Sky this afternoon. To Kathryn and Simon: Thanks heaps for your support and for giving me a fantastic way to spend some time away from Uni. And Olivia, what noise does a cat make? To David and Tracey: good of you to return to New Zealand in my busiest year and distract me with all those good social times. Time now to really rock 'n roll. Thanks again to you all. iv Contents Title ....................................... ;................................................... i Abstract ................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments .................................................................. iii Contents .................................................................................. iv List of Tables, Maps, and Abbreviations ............................. vii Preface .................................................................................. viii Author's Note .......................................................................... x Opening Quotes ....................................................................... xi Chapter One - Introduction Proposing a critical geopolitics of international conflict ....................................................... 1 Conflict as contradiction 2 The nation-state in international relations 5 Conflict research as geopolitical discourse 8 A critical geopolitics of international conflict 13 Thesis methodology and objectives 17 Chapter Two Nation, nationalism, and international conflict •...•...•.•••....••.. 21 Introduction 22 A review of nation(alism) studies 23 The subject(ivity) ojnation(alism) A three dimensional typology of the nation Territory and resources Ethnicity and culture Historical geography Adding a fourth dimension - Distinguishing "nation" from "ethnie" Political community The political doctrine of nationalism Official nations andlversus ethnic nations A nation-centric glossary of terms 44 Re-signifying "nation" and "nationalism" Reconstructing "international" Conclusion: Towards the Kurdish case study 47 v Chapter Three The stateless nation: A regional geography of Kurdistan •••.....• .-•.......•..•..•..•••. 49 Introduction 50 Place 51 Location Mapping Kurdistan -Problems and politics Physical geography Cities and towns People 62 Ethnic origins Language Religion Population -Problems and politics Partition 66 The Kurdish nation in six states: An overview The Kurdish nation in the state ofIran The Kurdish nation in the state ofIraq The Kurdish nation in the state of Turkey Conclusion 73 Chapter Four Nation(alism) and international conflict in Kurdistan, 1880 - 1996 ••.....••••..••...•••..•.•.•••..••.•..••...••.• 75 Introduction 76 Tribal nation(alism) 77 Shaykh Ubayd Allah: The first nationalist Simko and Said Barzanji and Barzani Party nation(alism) 84 The Kurdish Republic ofMahabad, Iran 1946 Kurdish politics in the aftermath ofMahabad Popular nation(alism) 92 The KDP rebellion, Iraq 1961- 75 The Kurds in Turkey 1961- 78 The KDPI and the Islamic Revolution, Iran 1978- 80 The Kurds during the Iran- Iraq war, 1980- 88 The PKK in Turkey, 1978- 96 The KDPI since 1988 Conclusion 109 vi Chapter Five Global geopolitics and the Kurdish international conflict..................................................... ttl Introduction 112 The Kurds and colonialism, 1914 • 1939 113 The colonial carve-up begins: The Sykes -Picot Treaty, 1916 An independent Kurdistan? Making promises: The Treaty ofSevres, 1920 Breaking promises: The Treaty ofLausanne, 1923 The Kurds in the Cold WaJ:t_1945- 91 124 The Soviet Union and the rise andfall of the Mahabad Republic, 1946 Creating alliances: Superpowers, client states, and the Kurds, 1960- 75 Changing alliances: The islamic Revolution and the Iran -Iraq war, '1979- 88 The Kurds, Iraq, and the rogue state doctrine, 1990 - 134 The Gulf crisis and war, August 1990- February 1991 The Kurdish rebellion and crisis, March -Aprill991 Operation Provide Comfort, April,.., July 1991 Forward to peace or back to war? Conclusion 146 Chapter Six - Conclusion Nation(alism) and international conflict .............................. 147 Another Kurdish crisis in Iraq, August - October 1996 149 Nation(alism) and international conflict 155 Bibliography .......................................................................................... 159 vii List of Tables Table 3:1 The division ofKurdistan 67 Table 3:2 The division of the Kurds 67 Table 3:3 Sources of international conflict in Iran, Iraq, and Turkey 73 List of Maps Map 1:1 A nation~state