Exploring Non-binary Genders: Language and Identity Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the award of Doctor in Philosophy Sebastian Cordoba De Montfort University January 2020 2 Acknowledgments Writing this thesis has been one of the most difficult tasks I have ever undertaken. It has been, in many ways, both a painful and exhilarating experience that can only be described as an emotional rollercoaster. I would have never been able to complete this thesis without the help of some wonderful people, all of whom I would like to thank here: First of all, I would like to thank my partner – and soon-to-be-husband – Cooper Gatewood. Throughout this process, he has seen me experience every emotion, every feeling, and every possible mood. He has not only supported me emotionally, but also intellectually – through his amazing proofreading skills and willingness to listen to my random (insightful?) midnight thoughts. I could not have finished this thesis without you. I love you. I am eternally grateful to my first supervisor, Dr Zowie Davy, who has not only expanded my knowledge in the subject area of trans studies, but has also mentored me in publishing, public speaking, and writing. I am also thankful for her honest, vibrant, and rich feedback throughout the duration of this project. I have enjoyed working together, and I am proud to have had Dr Zowie Davy as my supervisor. I would also like to thank my second supervisor, Prof Brian Brown, whose insight and stimulating comments enriched my thesis and brought the analysis to a higher level. I would also like to thank my examiners, Dr Meg-John Barker and Dr Iain Williamson, as well as Professor Julie Fish (who chaired the session), for their commitment to ensuring my viva experience was not only intellectually stimulating and lively, but also fair, ethical, consensual, and compassionate, particularly amid the covid- 19 epidemic. I am very thankful for their time and thoughtful feedback. 3 Special thanks to Dr Vivien Tartter who helped me harvest my passion for the study of language, and whose mentoring has had a significant impact on my academic and personal life. Thank you for your continued encouragement, words of wisdom, and support. I am thankful to my chosen family all over the world, including: Amanda Richards, Angel Vásquez, Brian Alvarado Pino, Christine Pagliarulo, Elisabeth Gea Sastre, Eri Nomikou, Gavin Shapiro, Guilherme Fiorini, Hallie Detrick, Alex Lynes, Haneen Shair, Jemina Elliot, Jo Wood, Joel Saunders, Jonela Kolasi, Kate St. Hilaire, Mae Dobbs, Paul Doney, Meghan Weltman, Natasha Bach, Orli Meiri, Patrick Nuñez, Rachael Small, Rodrigo Peroni, Sarah Griffis, Talvany Carlotto, and Tammy Lin, among others. I wish I could mention you all. Thank you for the memes, the drinks, the feasts, the board games, and the company. You have kept me sane. I am also grateful for all the postgraduate students (and now friends) I have met throughout this process, including: Aimee Bailey, Dr Christina Weis, Dee Bij, Elizabeth Johnstone, Jasmine Ouchikh, Kat Webby, Lotte Verheijen, Luke Ward, Pascal Bagonza, Periklis Papaloukas, Sasha Loyal, and Zaqia Rehman. Your words of encouragement and mutual solidarity has made this journey bearable, if not enjoyable. Special thanks to Ynda Jas for helping me illustrate Figure 4. This thesis would not have been possible without the non-binary people who were willing to share with me about their lives. I would like to thank them for their time and energy in discussing their identities and processes of becoming. I would also like to thank the forum users whose data I analysed in this thesis. 4 I would also like to thank Gradconsult for awarding me a microgrant which helped cover some of the costs of my research, including the financial incentive that was rewarded to research participants. Por último, me gustaría agradecer a mi familia en Los Ángeles y en Lima por sus palabras de aliento, respeto mutuo, cariño y amor incondicional. Agradecimientos especiales a Sofía Novoa, Sofía Córdoba, Patricia Block y Alba de Novoa (quien falleció en Enero 29, 2020), las matriarcas más poderosas de mi familia, quienes siempre me han inspirado a seguir adelante, a cumplir mis sueños y a no mirar atrás. Las quiero mucho. Espero que estos esfuerzos inspiren a David Córdoba, Juliana Díaz y Stephanie Gómez a seguir adelante y cumplir todas sus metas. I would also like to thank my cat Queerspawn (a.k.a. Cucu) for his incredible emotional support throughout this thesis. 5 6 Abstract This thesis explores the multiple ways in which non-binary people negotiate their identities, their authenticity, and their embodied experiences through language. Twenty-two non-binary-identified people living in the UK were interviewed for this project. Those same participants also provided writing samples which were included in the analysis. Additionally, a 2.9 million-word corpus of non-binary language was analysed using corpus linguistic tools. This thesis theorised gender as something one becomes rather than something one is (Linstead and Pullen, 2006), a relational process through affective intensities which move through the body, society, language, and other material and abstract elements. Drawing from assemblage theory (DeLanda, 2006) and Deleuze and Guattari’s (1987) materialist ontology, which acknowledges the multiple (linguistic and material) components that merge at particular points to produce (or assemble) a becoming, I identified the most significant affective intensities which aided in the (de/re)territorialisation of non-binary gender becomings, or the non-binary- assemblage. Furthermore, the theory of linguistic becomings, which refers to the discovery, adoption, (re)assessment, and ongoing social negotiation of gender-related language, was developed in this thesis. The linguistic parameters of non-binary identities were found to be constantly reassessed, redefined, and renegotiated. A variety of material embodiments – and their relationship to language – were also identified, including affective fluidity and neutrality, and dysphoria. This thesis also explores the ways in which non-binary people in the present study navigated the world using non- binary language, the distress that originated from social interactions in which their language was not affirmed (i.e., misgendering), and the various ways in which they managed these situations. Overall, this research found that utilising a distinct type of language – a linguistic becoming – not only served as a tool to differentiate their gender and territorialise their identity, but also as a marker of social identity and group membership, thus allowing their identities to be recognised and more widely validated. 7 Table of Contents Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................... 3 Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 7 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 13 Situating my Research: Non-binary Gender Identities and Language ............................ 14 Why is language important? ................................................................................................. 17 Present Research ................................................................................................................... 21 Research Aims ....................................................................................................................... 23 Positionality ............................................................................................................................ 24 Key terms ............................................................................................................................... 26 Sex and Gender ................................................................................................................... 26 Intersex ................................................................................................................................ 28 Trans(gender) ...................................................................................................................... 30 Cis(gender) .......................................................................................................................... 32 Gender-neutral Language ................................................................................................... 33 Chapter outlines ..................................................................................................................... 35 2. NON-BINARY HISTORY AND RESEARCH .................................................. 39 Gender Diversity Across the Globe ...................................................................................... 40 Emergence of Non-binary Thinking .................................................................................... 44 Linguistic Emergence ............................................................................................................ 47 Prevalence .............................................................................................................................. 50 (Lack of) Social Awareness ................................................................................................... 53 Mental Health Among Non-binary People .......................................................................... 57 Non-binary