UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Repatriation of cultural objects: The case of China Liu, Z. Publication date 2015 Document Version Final published version Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Liu, Z. (2015). Repatriation of cultural objects: The case of China. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:24 Sep 2021 Repatriation of Cultural Objects: The Case of China Zuozhen Liu © Zuozhen Liu This study is financed by the Oversea Study Program of Guangzhou Elite Project. Repatriation of Cultural Objects The Case of China ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel op dinsdag 14 april 2015, te 10.00 uur door Zuozhen Liu geboren te Guangdong, China Promotor: Prof. dr. I.C. van der Vlies, Universiteit van Amsterdam Copromotor: Prof. dr. A.F. Salomons, Universiteit van Amsterdam Overige leden: Prof. dr. L.F.M. Besselink, Universiteit van Amsterdam Prof. dr. A.A.H. van Hoek, Universiteit van Amsterdam Prof. dr. Y. Li, Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam Dr. C. Mak, Universiteit van Amsterdam Prof. mr. P.A. Nollkaemper, Universiteit van Amsterdam Prof. dr. H.E.G.S. Schneider, Maastricht University Dr. A. van Woudenberg, Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken Faculteit der Rechtsgeleerdheid Contents A Note about Chinese Dynasties and Names ......................................................................................................... 8 Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................................... 9 Terminology ............................................................................................................................................................... 11 Preface ......................................................................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 16 1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................................................... 16 1.2 Research Questions and Method ................................................................................................................. 20 1.3 Structure of the Study .................................................................................................................................... 22 Chapter 2 The Loss of Cultural Relics in Modern Chinese History .................................................................. 25 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 25 2.2 The Social Background of the Loss ............................................................................................................. 26 2.2.1 The Opium Wars .................................................................................................................................... 26 2.2.2 The Unequal Treaty System .................................................................................................................. 27 2.2.3 Japanese Aggression against China ...................................................................................................... 29 2.3 Plunder during Times of War ....................................................................................................................... 31 2.3.1 The Sack of Yuanmingyuan .................................................................................................................. 31 2.3.2 Plunder of Beijing in 1900 ..................................................................................................................... 33 2.3.3 Japanese Pillage in the Second World War ......................................................................................... 35 2.4 Foreign Expeditions, Thefts and Exportations ......................................................................................... 36 2.4.1 The Loss of Dunhuang Cultural Relics ............................................................................................... 36 2.4.2 The Loss of Oracle Bones ..................................................................................................................... 40 2.5 The Recovery Activities and Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 42 2.5.1 Efforts of Recovery ................................................................................................................................ 43 2.5.2 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 44 Chapter 3 Legal Protection of Cultural Objects ................................................................................................... 45 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 45 3.2 Protection of Cultural Objects during Times of War ............................................................................... 45 3.2.1 From Antiquity to the Eighteenth Century ........................................................................................ 45 3.2.2 The Nineteenth Century ........................................................................................................................ 48 3.2.3 The Two World Wars ............................................................................................................................ 50 3.2.4 The Post-war Legal Regime .................................................................................................................. 52 3.3 Protection of Cultural Objects against Illicit Traffic ................................................................................. 56 3.3.1 International Conventions ..................................................................................................................... 56 3.3.1.1 The 1970 UNESCO Convention ................................................................................................. 56 3.3.1.2 The 1995 UNITROIT Convention .............................................................................................. 59 3.3.2 Chinese Legislation on Protecting Cultural Relics ............................................................................. 61 3.3.2.1 Rules for Archaeological Excavation ........................................................................................... 64 3.2.2.2 Export Control of Antiquities ....................................................................................................... 65 3.4 Soft Law-making concerning Cultural Objects .......................................................................................... 66 3.4.1 Ethical Guidelines Combating Illicit Traffic in Cultural Objects .................................................... 67 The Principle of Due Diligence ................................................................................................................. 68 3.4.2 Ethics of Restitution of Cultural Objects ........................................................................................... 69 3.4.2.1 Restitution of Nazi Looted Art ..................................................................................................... 69 3.4.2.2 Resolutions by the General Assembly and the UNESCO ....................................................... 71 3.5 Chapter Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 73 Chapter 4 Restitution through International Adjudication: Cases Studies of Looted Cultural Objects ...... 74 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 74 4.2 Responsibility for Restitution? ...................................................................................................................... 75 4.2.1 The Doctrine of Intertemporal Law ...................................................................................................