1 RESPONDING TO VIOLENCE IN THE HOMELAND: IDENTITY AND TRANSNATIONAL ACTIVISM WITHIN THE INDIAN CHRISTIAN DIASPORA A dissertation presented By Autumn L. Mathias to The Department of Sociology & Anthropology In partial fulfillment for the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the field of Sociology Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts October 2017 2 RESPONDING TO VIOLENCE IN THE HOMELAND: IDENTITY AND TRANSNATIONAL ACTIVISM WITHIN THE INDIAN CHRISTIAN DIASPORA A dissertation presented By Autumn L. Mathias ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology in the College of Social Sciences and Humanities of Northeastern University October 2017 3 ABSTRACT Within the last twenty years, instances of violence against Christian minorities in India have drawn international attention. The rise of the Hindu nationalist movement and concordant political shifts are often cited as precipitating factors to what many deem as systematic religious persecution. However, few sociological studies have investigated how Indian Christians in diaspora have reacted to these significant events. To explore this topic, I employed a qualitative, phenomenological approach including in-depth interviews with forty-seven individuals residing in the United States and Canada, participant observation at six events, and a review of diasporic and India-based media. Throughout this dissertation, I advance the argument that diaspora Indian Christians’ perceptions of and responses to persecution are connected in a nuanced way to translocational positionality. More specifically, remembrances of persecution events, perceptions of the causes of these events, types of transnational responses, motivations for spiritual and/or political forms of activism, and engagement in ecumenical and/or interreligious networks are inherently linked and best understood within an integrated theoretical framework including translocational positionality, transnational social fields, memory, and the social ecological model. Although religiosity was a key motivating factor for Indian Christians to engage in political and spiritual responses across transnational social fields, other aspects of positionality, such as translocational residence, ethno-linguistic identity, and caste influenced other factors such as how, why, and with whom diaspora Indian Christians decided to respond to persecution events. This research also raises additional questions about the role of personal experiences of persecution and the transnational impact of diaspora politics. 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This journey could not have been completed without the guidance and encouragement of many. First and foremost, I would not have been able to complete this research without my participants. Their stories were thought provoking and inspiring, and I will forever be grateful to them. Words cannot adequately express how much they taught me. My ability to connect with many participants in person was also facilitated by the Hong Liu Asian Studies Research Award. In addition, I was privileged to receive a summer research grant from the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, which enabled me to purchase the NVivo software that was utilized for data analysis. I am immensely grateful for these awards. Undoubtedly, numerous professors at Northeastern made an indelible impact on my growth as a sociologist. First, I would like to thank Judith Perrolle for encouraging me to pursue my love of the sociology of religion. The paper that I wrote for her Classical Theory class truly served as the backdrop to the focus of this dissertation. Other professors encouraged my love for qualitative research, such as Kathrin Zippel and Amy Farrell. Additional others taught me valuable lessons about both research and teaching. I was privileged to work as a teaching assistant with Jack Levin, Silvia Dominguez, Andrea Hill, and Alan Klein. I would also like to express my gratitude to those who served on my comprehensive exam committees for urging me to pursue my interests related to globalization, transnationalism, and religious conflict and violence: Liza Weinstein, Gordana Rabrenovic, Berna Turam, Jeff Juris, and Doreen Lee. Your scholarly examples and personal support have meant so much through this journey. In addition, other professors and staff have provided administrative support and reassurance at various points throughout my time at Northeastern. For this I am grateful to Matthew Hunt, Daniel Faber, 5 Steve Vallas, and Joan Collins. Joan’s work helped me to stay connected to campus after my moves; her encouraging and upbeat attitude always offered reassurance. I must also express my utmost appreciation for my dissertation committee, three of whom also served as my professors and comprehensive exam committee members throughout the graduate program: Liza Weinstein, Gordana Rabrenovic, Berna Turam, and Peggy Levitt. Peggy Levitt’s seminal research on religion, transnationalism, and civic engagement served as inspiration for this project; I am grateful for her comments and advice which strengthened this dissertation. Berna Turam’s research, instruction, and advice confirmed my love for political sociology and encouraged me to press on no matter what. She has always been down to earth and reassuring. Gordana Rabrenovic was the first professor I met at Northeastern, and she has been a constant support ever since. I am thankful for the great interest she took not only in my work, but also in my life as a whole. Also, her attention to social justice encouraged me to uphold the same. Finally, I do not have sufficient words to convey my gratitude to my advisor and the chair of my committee, Liza Weinstein. She offered unending support and reassurance, many times across numerous miles. She inspired me from the first day I met her to pursue research focused on South Asia, and to persevere despite any obstacles. Her experience and input into this project and my overall development has been invaluable. The support that I received from fellow graduate student friends at different points in the program was second to none. I would especially like to thank Jill Eshelman and Estye Ross Fenton for so many encouraging words and talks. Also, I've greatly appreciated the motivating words shared by Vicki Schow and Lauren Nicoll. In addition, I don't know what I would have done without constant support through many Facebook messages, Skype sessions, and phone 6 calls with Yingchan Zhang and Margot Abels. Their support has meant more than they will ever know. I must also express my gratitude to other friends and colleagues, some of whom I have met at different points in life; others whom I have never met in person. With respect to the latter, the "PhD Moms" and others in different Facebook groups have offered advice and accountability throughout this process. In addition, I received numerous messages from friends such as Ty Woznek, Mike Saenko, and Rosemary Taylor at critical points in the writing of this dissertation. Several others offered prayer and support from the time I began the graduation program. More recently, my colleagues and friends at Elms College have been a mainstay from the inception to the completion of this project. Maureen Holland has given me invaluable opportunities to grow both personally and professionally while working on this project; she has offered her time and advice when I needed it most. I am also greatly appreciative of the many talks and concrete assistance offered by other social science faculty and staff, especially Scott Hartblay, Jennifer Rivers, William Gilbert, Nancy Sullivan, Andrea Neill, John Lambdin, and Diana Lewis. In addition, I would especially like to thank past colleagues and mentors, such as Joyce Hamilton- Henry, Michael Grodin, Louise Simmons, and Lloyd Gestoso for helping me to apply to this program and for showing me that this achievement was possible. Most definitely, Lloyd Gestoso has been a constant support since my undergraduate days and provided consistent encouragement as I worked on this project. Last but far from least, I want to express my utmost appreciation for God, my family, and close friends, who saw me through the sundry mountains and valleys of this journey. I would like to thank my grandparents and two of my aunts in particular for always exhorting me to reach 7 my goals, no matter what. My parents, especially my mother, have offered listening ears for countless hours, and have been there through thick and thin. Without my mother’s unending support, I would not have become the first in my family to achieve a graduate degree. I don’t know what I would have done without her persistent reinforcement. Also, all of my in-laws, including aunts, uncles, and cousins, have played a key role in making this project possible. I am exceedingly grateful for their help, words, and prayers throughout this process. However, this trek would not have even begun if it weren’t for the support of my husband, Clinton Mathias. I can find no words powerful enough to exude my appreciation for all that he has done for me. From accompanying me on field work trips, to occupying our children, Elijah and Therese, for hours on end and at odd times, to offering endless support and solid advice, he has been a rock and shield at all stages of this journey. I am overwhelmingly privileged to have him as my partner in life. And of course, I am grateful for our children’s patience, understanding, and even their encouraging words and