UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, MERCED Beyond Black: Exploring Racial Label Preferences of African Americans and Afro- Caribbeans in the United States A Thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology by Breanna D. Brock Committee in charge: Whitney Pirtle, Chair Zulema Valdez Dawne Mouzon 2019 ©Breanna D. Brock, 2019 All rights reserved iii The Thesis of Breanna D. Brock is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Dr. Dawne Mouzon Dr. Zulema Valdez Dr. Whitney Pirtle, Chair University of California, Merced 2019 iii Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………7 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..7 Literature Review..…………………………………..…………………………………………….8 Theorizing about Race, Ethnicity, and Identity of African Descendants Living in the United States …………………………………………….....……………………….…….8 Overview of Racial Labels in the United States…………....……………………………..9 Racial Labels as a Measure of Social Identity and Identification……..………………....12 Nativity and Discrimination as Correlates for Racial Label Preference among African Descendants……………………………………………………………….…………..…13 Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………..15 Data………………………………………………………………………………………15 Analysis Plan………………………………………………………………………....….18 Results……………………...………………………………………………………………….....18 Discussion………………..…………..…………………………………………………………..23 References………………………………………………………………………………………..34 iv List of Tables Table 1. Demographics by Nativity/Ancestry …………………………………...27 Table 2a. Multinomial Regression of Racial Label Preference (American Hyphenated v. Black) by Everyday Discrimination, Major Discrimination and Ancestry...............................................28 Table 2b. Multinomial Regression of Identification Labels (National Origin v. Black) by Everyday Discrimination, Major Discrimination and Ethnicity ………………………………...29 Table 3a. Multinomial Regression of Identification Labels (American Hyphenated v. Black) by Everyday Discrimination, Major Discrimination and Ethnicity among Foreign Born Afro- Caribbean…………………...............................................................................................30 Table3b. Multinomial Regression of Identification Labels (National Origin v. Black) by Everyday Discrimination, Major Discrimination and Ethnicity among Foreign Born Afro- Caribbean ….…………………………………………………………..………………...31 Table 4a. Multinomial Regression of Identification Labels (American Hyphenated v. Black) by Everyday Discrimination, Major Discrimination and Ethnicity among US Born Afro- Caribbean...........................................................................................................................32 Table 4b. Multinomial Regression of Identification Labels (National Origin v. Black) by Everyday Discrimination, Major Discrimination and Ethnicity among US Born Afro- Caribbean...........................................................................................................................33 v Abstract People of African descent living in the United States subscribe to a variety of racial self- identification labels. Given their historical and political meaning, ‘Black’ or ‘African American’ have been the two most common self-identification terms used by this population yet increasing immigration rates among people of African descent from the Caribbean have diversified the racial label preferences. Past research suggests age, gender, education, and region are factors that influence racial identification preferences for Black people in the United States. This study contributes by examining how experiences of discrimination and ethnicity/nativity impact racial self-labeling among people of African descent living in the United States. Analyzing the National Survey of American Life, I find that experiences with major forms of discrimination and nativity condition racial labeling preferences, and differently for those born in the US and those with ties to the Caribbean. Additionally, these findings indicate that age, household income, educational attainment and region significantly predict racial identification labels. This study encourages scholars to think critically about the racial labels they use to speak about African descendants living in the United States in order to more accurately disentangle intra- racial group differences relating to social mobility, racism, and racial inequality. 6 Introduction African descendants who live in the United States are treated as a racial group under the racial label of Black and are often discussed as one monolithic and homogenous group assumed to have shared history and cultural values (Treitler 2013; Vickerman 2001). For instance, studies on Black populations in the United States rarely explore nativity or generational status differences for outcomes on topics such as educational disparities (Posey-Maddox 2014), wealth (Massey and Denton 1993), and identity formation (Kiecolt and Hughes 2017). Scholarship on particular Black immigrant ethnic groups, such as Afro-Caribbeans, might explore ethnicity, nativity, or generational differences (Rong and Brown 2001; Jones and Erving 2015) but analyses rarely jointly examine African Americans and Black ethnic groups in their analysis. Even though there are connections and similarities for African-descendants, variation within the group, across ethnicity and nativity, and with regard to perceptions of discrimination, likely shape differences in understandings of race and preferences for racial labels, given what we know from similar studies of ‘pan-ethnicity’ and ethnic projects among non-African- descendant populations1 (Okamoto and Mora 2014; Treitler 2013). Racial labels shed light on how people see themselves as individuals and recognize themselves as members of a group. Previous work on racial label preferences of African Americans has explored how structural (i.e., education, residential patterns, and region) and social psychological factors (i.e., perception of discriminatory intent from whites) influence identification preferences (Agyemang, Bhopal, and Bruijnzeels 2005; Benson 2006; Brown 1999; Sigelman, Tuch, and Martin 2005; Smith 1992; Thornton, Taylor, and Brown 2000). Although there is some research examining racial self-labeling among African Americans, research on the racial labels used by Black immigrants broadly, and in the United States especially, is underdeveloped. My project contributes by exploring racial label preferences within the US Black population. In this paper, I use the term African American to signify Americans of African descent, or those formerly enslaved Africans with ancestry connected to the United States, commonly referred to as ‘Black’ Americans. The term Afro-Caribbean is used to identify non- Hispanic African descendants with ancestry connected to Caribbean countries such as Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Haiti, Barbados, Grenada, Bahamas, and others, commonly referred to in literature as ‘Black’ immigrants. The Black immigrant population has grown exponentially in the US over the last few decades. This drastic change is primarily a result of 1990 immigration policies, which established the immigration lottery system that allowed entry for underrepresented immigrant populations in the United States (Waters, Kasinitz, and Asad 2014). The Black population in the United States is diversifying with an influx of Black immigrants from the Caribbean and continental Africa (Greer 2013; Waters, Kasinitz, and Asad 2014). By 2016, 8% of the U.S Black population were second generation American, leaving 18% of the overall U.S Black population as immigrants and their children (Anderson and Lopez, 2018). Currently, the Black Caribbean population is the largest Black immigrant group in the United States (Anderson 2017). Like most immigrant groups, Afro-Caribbeans have their own unique historical and cultural perspectives which are linked to their country of origin (nativity), which can shape their identity and racial self-labeling preferences, in ways that potentially diverge from that of African Americans. Given the increasing rates of Black migration to the US and the distinct cultural origins of this group vis a vis African Americans, it is vital to consider how Afro-Caribbean immigrant groups differ from African Americans with regard to racial identity and racial self-labeling in the United States. For this project I extend previous research on racial label preference, which represents a public display of one’s identity, to an analysis of African Americans as well as Afro-Caribbean (US born and foreign born) in the US, by providing an empirical examination of the independent and collective associations of ethnicity/nativity and experiences of discrimination on racial self-labeling in a representative sample. As scholars continue to theorize and study Blackness within the United States, it is important that they make necessary adjustments to broaden their scope of the ‘Black’ racial experience beyond the African American perspective. Studying racial self-labeling preferences of Black immigrants alongside African-Americans can lead to new understandings of identity among the US Black population, which can be useful to explore the varied processes of Black immigrant incorporation and identity formation of Black immigrants. I aim to advance the literature on racial labels by incorporating an Afro-Caribbean immigrant sample while testing how ethnicity/nativity and experiences of discrimination