Syracuse University SURFACE Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Anthropology - Dissertations Affairs 12-2011 Aghoreshwar Bhagawan Ram and the Aghor Tradition Jishnu Shankar Syracuse University Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/ant_etd Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Shankar, Jishnu, "Aghoreshwar Bhagawan Ram and the Aghor Tradition" (2011). Anthropology - Dissertations. 93. https://surface.syr.edu/ant_etd/93 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Anthropology - Dissertations by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract Aghoreshwar Mahaprabhu Baba Bhagawan Ram Ji, a well-established saint of the holy city of Varanasi in north India, initiated many changes into the erstwhile Aghor tradition of ascetics in India. This tradition is regarded as an ancient system of spiritual or mystical knowledge by its practitioners and at least some of the practices followed in this tradition can certainly be traced back at least to the time of the Buddha. Over the course of the centuries practitioners of this tradition have interacted with groups of other mystical traditions, exchanging ideas and practices so that both parties in the exchange appear to have been influenced by the other. Naturally, such an interaction between groups can lead to difficulty in determining a clear course of development of the tradition. In this dissertation I bring together micro-history, hagiography, folklore, religious and comparative studies together in an attempt to understand how this modern day religious-spiritual tradition has been shaped by the past and the role religion has to play in modern life, if only with reference to a single case study. My study is about Aghoreshwar Bhagawan Ram Ji’s life, a biography gleaned from books published by the society he established, but given flesh, blood and continuity by the stories narrated to me during fieldwork, and by comparative analysis with practices found in other long-standing traditions of spirituality in India. It is also about his viewpoints on the nature and subject of worship, humanism, nationalism, universalism, and an astute manner of communicating ideas with efficacy. Such a study not only illuminates the rigors of the life of an Aughaṛ ascetic, but also gives new insight into the workings of this tradition, as well as into what being a monk or a saint means to followers of this tradition in this age of modernity. AGHORESHWAR BHAGAWAN RAM AND THE AGHOR TRADITION by Jishnu Shankar B.A., Delhi University, 1983 M.A., Delhi School of Economics, Delhi University, 1986 M.A., Syracuse University, 1989 Dissertation Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology. Syracuse University December 2011 Copyright © Jishnu Shankar 2011 All Rights Reserved Table of Contents Chapter Page Number Statement of Diacritics and Spellings v Acknowledgments vii 1. Baba Bhagawan Ram Ji and the Aghor Tradition 1 2. Situating Aghor: A Historical and Literary View 78 3. The Buddha and the Aghoreshwar – Sādhanā and Philosophy 190 4. Sarkar Baba’s Language: Colloquialism, Universalism and Guru Particularism 261 5. Mysticism, Nationalism, and Civil Society 383 6. Concluding Summation 470 7. References Cited 481 8. Glossary 502 9. Vita 528 iv Statement on Diacritics and Spellings The style for my thesis is based on the AAA Style Guide. 1. a) Diacritics are not used in proper names such as Shiva, Vishnu, Kashi, Banaras, unless they occur within quotes and cited text. b) Diacritics are used for proper names from classical Sanskrit and Buddhist texts such as Viśvāmitra, Vāmadeva, Vaśiṣṭha, Cuṛālā, Vikramāditya, Hariścandra, Aghorācārya, Bhairavācārya etc. 2. Diacritics are not used for proper nouns such as Shakti, Vaishnava, Baba, ashram, sadhu that can be found in Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 3. Diacritics are used for uncommon proper nouns, not found in Merriam-Webster Dictionary, such as Aughaṛ, Sādhanā. 4. Spellings of Hindi names which are common in English, are given in English, such as Ganges instead of Ganga. 5. All named texts have full diacritics, such as Rāmāyaṇa. 6. In the bibliography authors for Hindi/Sanskrit texts are first listed without diacritics, and then, with them. 7. All Hindi (Bhojpuri) quotes are in italics, and with full diacritics. 8. When quoting an author, the original style used by the author is represented. Note on transliteration: v Certain terms are used interchangeably by interviewees as well as authors, which may create confusion for the readers, because the meaning of the words may be slightly different in each case. Such cases are illustrated below – 1. Aghor, Aghora, Aughaṛ, Auḍhar, Aghori, Avadhūt. The words Aghor, Aghora, Aughaṛ, Auḍhar, Aghori and Avadhūt can be used both as adjectives and as nouns. The word Aghor is a noun in that it derives from the name of the fifth face of Shiva, the Aghor face. It forms a compound noun with the word tradition, thus becoming “Aghor tradition.” It can be used as an adjective to qualify distinctions of philosophy, such as Aghor philosophy, or ascetic practices, such as Aghor Sādhanā. Followers of the Aghor tradition are typically referred to as Aughaṛ in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh states of India, and Aghori more commonly in Bengal. Aghora is an English variant of the spelling and can be used as a noun, except when it is used in a Sanskrit scriptural sense, where the addition of an “a” at the end feminizes the noun. Auḍhar is a less common variant of Aughaṛ, and is used mostly as an adjective, as in “Baba Auḍhar - dānī.” Avadhūt is the term given to accomplished ascetic practitioners who have achieved enlightenment following the Aghor path. I use the word Aghor to qualify ascetic practices and philosophy. To denote an ascetic of this path I prefer to use the term Aughaṛ. Note on Translation: All translations, unless specified otherwise, are mine from the original Hindi or Bhojpuri text. vi Acknowledgments I feel this dissertation cannot be regarded as complete till I have expressed my deepest gratitude and thanks to the many people who have actively helped or solidly stood by me even as my life meandered during the course of finishing this dissertation. First, I have to thank Prof. Susan S. Wadley, my advisor and dissertation committee member, who not only never held back from helping me during my academic career with all varieties of advice and support, but also never gave up on me during the course of the two decades it has taken me to reach this point. Her experience in academic administration and her faith in the ultimate abilities of her students were instrumental to my completion of this dissertation. My gratitude and thanks go to Professors Ann and Dan Gold for their friendship as well as concern. Ann, always gentle and encouraging, not only reinforced faith in my ability to write academically, she also reminded me of the importance of the doctoral dissertation in the academic field. Dan, with his quiet concern but with a view to push me along, never hesitated in asking me at the many conferences and workshops where our paths crossed if I had finished the dissertation yet! Their encouragement has a lot to do with the final form of this dissertation. The administration of the department of Anthropology, especially Professor Christopher DeCorse and Kristina M. Ashley were instrumental in getting my paperwork restored after two decades of changes they had gone through. But for the hours of time Chris devoted to comparing and calculating the changes that the departmental policies had gone through over the years, I might still be wondering if I qualify to write the vii dissertation. My unqualified thanks to both Chris and Kristina for making it happen. Equally invaluable are the suggestions and comments my dissertation committee members have given me, to all of whom I remain indebted. There are far too many people at the various ashrams and in cities scattered throughout North India to name them individually, who were ready and willing to share their stories with me and to help me with my project. My heartfelt thanks go to all of them. At UT Austin, I am grateful to my friend and colleague Oliver Freiberger who has always been ready to help me with the dissertation, and Professor Patrick Olivelle who graciously agreed to help me with Sanskrit translations. My final acknowledgement is to Sarkar Baba himself whose inspiration, insight and knowledge spurred me to feel strongly enough to write about him. Sarkar Baba devoted his life for others, I hope this dissertation may help others in their lives too. viii Chapter 1 Baba Bhagawan Ram Ji and the Aghor Tradition A Visit by Sarkar Baba I have a very vivid recollection of a week from my childhood. It was the month of April and I was in fourth grade at school. Within a few days my final exams were due and I was worried about mathematics. While I loved language and literature, geography and biology, mathematics had always been my nemesis. I had gone to a friend’s house to study, and when I returned home around one o’ clock in the afternoon, I found the house abuzz with activity. I noticed there was a pile of shoes lying outside the doorway. It was hot, and I was hungry. As I entered the coolness of the doorway, the exhilarating aroma of eggplant and tomatoes roasted with garlic on a charcoal fire, fresh ground cilantro leaves mixed with lime juice and chopped green chilies seemed to pervade the air tantalizingly. I headed straight for the kitchen saying namaste to unknown folks sitting in the living room and found Ma sitting on the kitchen floor on a pīṛhā (a wooden slab used as a seat) peeling the skin off the roasted eggplant in preparation for baiṃgan-bhartā (roasted, pureed eggplant and tomatoes with garlic, cilantro and chopped green chilies).