ABSTRACT Baptist Environmentalisms: A Comparison of American Baptist and Southern Baptist Attitudes, Actions and Approaches Toward Environmental Issues Aaron Douglas Weaver, Ph.D. Mentor: Charles A. McDaniel, Ph.D. This dissertation articulates how and why Southern Baptists and American Baptists have addressed environmental issues during the critical second and third waves of environmental history. With the birth of the modern environmental movement as a logical starting point, Southern Baptist and American Baptist attitudes and actions concerning key environmental questions in American political and environmental history are examined. These include: population explosion (1960s), energy crises (1970s), environmental backlash (1980s) and international ecological concerns (1990s to present). This dissertation argues that Southern Baptists and American Baptists, while enjoying some similarities along the way and despite their shared Baptist heritage, have adopted and promoted very different environmentalisms. The findings from this comparative study reveal that these dissimilar environmentalisms are due to four factors relating to ethics, political engagement approaches, the regulatory role of government and attitudes toward advancements in science and technology. First, Southern Baptists and American Baptists have embraced disparate environmental ethics. Second, Southern Baptists and American Baptists have taken distinct political engagement approaches due to differing theological commitments. Third, Southern Baptists and American Baptists have adopted different attitudes about the appropriate regulatory role of government regarding environmental issues. Fourth and finally, Southern Baptists and American Baptists have held contrasting perspectives on prevailing scientific viewpoints and advancements in technology. These four factors offer answers to how and why these two related historic Protestant denominations have taken such divergent paths with regard to care of the environment or God’s creation. Nearly forty years after the first-ever Earth Day on April, 22, 1970, Southern Baptists and American Baptists had come to embrace radically different environmentalisms. American Baptists preached and practiced an environmentalism that sought strict environmental regulations and was defined by an eco-justice ethic emphasizing the interconnectedness of humans with their environment. Meanwhile, Southern Baptists were preaching and practicing a distinctly different environmentalism. Southern Baptists abandoned the ethic of previous decades and replaced it with a decidedly more conservative ethic that continued to utilize the language of stewardship but was increasingly anthropocentric and strikingly development-focused. Also, an anti- regulation philosophy and skepticism of prevailing scientific viewpoints characterized their environmentalism. Baptist Environmentalisms: A Comparison of American Baptist and Southern Baptist Attitudes, Actions and Approaches Toward Environmental Issues by Aaron Douglas Weaver, B.A., M.A. A Dissertation Approved by the J. M. Dawson Institute of Church-State Studies Robyn L. Driskell, Ph.D., Interim Director Submitted to the Graduate F acuity of Baylor University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Approved by the Dissertation Committee Charles A. McDaniel, Ph.D., Chairperson William L. Pitts, Jr., Ph.D. William A. Mitchell, Ph.D. Stephen M. Sloan, Ph.D. Perry L. Glanzer, Ph.D. Accepted by the Graduate School May 2013 J. Larry Lyon, Ph.D., Dean Page bearing signatures is kept on file in the Graduate School. Copyright © 2013 by Aaron Douglas Weaver All rights reserved CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS x DEDICATION xi Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO STUDY 1 Introduction 1 Overview of Argument and Methodology 3 Ethics 5 Political Engagement 11 Government 15 Science and Technology 16 Justification for Study 19 Outline of Study 21 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 24 Introduction 24 American Environmental History: An Historiographical Introduction 24 Christian Environmentalism: An Historical Overview 34 Literature Review: History of Christian Environmentalism 46 Baptist Environmentalisms: A Brief Introduction 52 Southern Baptists 53 American Baptists 56 Literature Review: Baptists and Social Action 59 Southern Baptists 59 American Baptists 64 Conclusion 66 v 3. SOUTHERN BAPTISTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (1965-1972) 68 Introduction 68 Population in American Politics and Society 69 Southern Baptists and Population 72 Southern Baptists and Pollution 79 Denominational Agencies and the Environment 84 Christian Life Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention 84 Christian Life Commission of the Baptist General Convention of Texas 94 Southern Baptist Environmentalists 96 Eric Rust the Theologian 96 Henlee Barnette the Ethicist 101 Analysis and Conclusion 109 Science and Technology 109 Government 113 Political Engagement 115 Ethics 119 Conclusion 122 4. AMERICAN BAPTISTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (1964-1973) 124 Introduction 124 Early American Baptist Environmental Concern: Population and Pollution 125 Development of American Baptist Environmentalism 133 Jitsuo Morikawa and "New Evangelism" 133 Board of National Ministries and Eco-Justice 142 Implementation of Denominational Eco-Justice 153 Comparative Analysis and Conclusion 166 Science and Technology 166 Government 168 Political Engagement 170 Ethics 173 Conclusion 178 vi 5. THE 1970S ENERGY CRISES (1973-1979) 181 Introduction 181 The Energy Crisis of 1973-1974: An Overview 182 Baptists and Oil: Part 1 186 Southern Baptists and the Energy Crisis of 1973-1974 186 American Baptists and the Energy Crisis of 1973-1974 191 The Energy Crisis of 1976-1977 and Federal Energy Policy 193 Baptists and Natural Gas 195 Southern Baptists and the Energy Crisis of 1976-1977 195 American Baptists and the Energy Crisis of 1976-1977 201 The Energy Crisis of 1979: Iranian Revolution and Three-Mile Island 205 Baptists and Oil: Part 2 208 Southern Baptists and the Energy Crisis of 1979 208 American Baptists and the Energy Crisis of 1979 212 Comparative Analysis and Conclusion 219 Science and Technology 219 Government 221 Political Engagement 224 Ethics 227 Conclusion 233 6. THE 1980S: A NEW ERA AND ENVIRONMENTAL BACKLASH 236 Introduction 236 Rise of Ronald Reagan and Environmental Regulation 237 Rise of the New Religious Right and Government Regulation 240 Rise of Southern Baptist Republicanism and a "Conservative Resurgence" 244 Southern Baptists and Environmental Regulation 249 Mainline Protestants and the Reagan Administration 253 Mainline Protestants and Environmental Engagement in the Reagan Era 255 vii American Baptists and Environmental Engagement 258 Corporate Responsibility 258 Hazardous Waste 262 Environmental Justice 266 Comparative Analysis and Conclusion 270 Science and Technology 270 Government 271 Political Engagement 272 Ethics 274 Conclusion 275 7. EARTH DAY, KYOTO AND CLIMATE CHANGE (1990-2008) 276 Introduction 276 Earth Day 1990: An Overview 277 Southern Baptist Conservatives Enter Environmental Arena 279 American Baptist Environmental Advocacy in 1990s 289 Climate Change: An Historical Introduction 299 Baptists and Climate Change 301 Southern Baptists 301 American Baptists 307 Southern Baptists Revisited 317 Comparative Analysis and Conclusion 334 Introduction 334 Ethics 335 Political Engagement 339 Government 342 Science and Technology 346 Conclusion 351 8. CONCLUSION 354 Introduction 354 Science and Technology 354 Government 356 Political Engagement 358 viii Ethics 360 Concluding Thoughts 361 BIBLIOGRAPHY 365 Primary Sources 365 Books, Book Chapters and Journal Articles 365 Newspapers and Magazines 370 Archival Collections 372 Denominational Reports and Resolutions 373 Other Sources 381 Secondary Sources 381 Books, Book Chapters and Journal Articles 381 Dissertations and Theses 391 Baptist Periodicals 393 Newspapers and Magazines 397 ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank all those who encouraged and challenged me throughout the course of my doctoral studies. I am especially grateful to Dr. Charles McDaniel who served as my supervisor on this project and mentored me throughout my graduate work. Dr. Bill Pitts was a great teacher too. His courses had a very meaningful impact on my developing research interests and inspired my passion for history. I must thank Dr. Stephen Sloan and also Dr. Perry Glanzer for serving on my committee. Dr. Sloan was a wonderful help introducing me to great books on environmental history. Dr. Glanzer's course—my first as a doctoral student—piqued my interest in this topic. It was in his class where I wrote my first paper on Baptists and the environment. I also want to express my appreciation to Dr. William Mitchell. As the J.M. Dawson Institute of Church-State Studies was undergoing much change, Dr. Mitchell offered a calming presence and provided tremendous leadership. His help assisting me through the end of this program is much appreciated. Finally, I want to acknowledge a few family members. First, thank you to my wife, Alexis, who flipped through many old, dusty Baptist periodicals for countless hours at various libraries and archives across the South. A special thank you goes to my dad, Dr. Doug Weaver, for giving me scholarly advice and sharing much fatherly wisdom during my entire educational journey. And saving the best for last, a loving thank you to my son, James Oliver, whose birth interrupted my progress on this project for a handful of months. But what a wonderful, life-changing interruption! x To Oliver