Post-Revolution Haiti and the Question of Legitimate Governance: American and British Representations of the Early Haitian State, 1804-1824 Author Forde, James Anthony Published 2017-09 Thesis Type Thesis (PhD Doctorate) School School of Hum, Lang & Soc Sc DOI https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/1971 Copyright Statement The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/371139 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au Post-Revolution Haiti and the Question of Legitimate Governance: American and British Representations of the Early Haitian State, 1804- 1824 James Anthony Forde BA, MA School of Humanities, Languages and Social Science Arts, Education and Law Group Griffith University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2017 Abstract Over the last twenty years a wealth of scholarship has highlighted the wide- ranging effects of the Haitian Revolution throughout the Atlantic world in the nineteenth century. In particular, studies have asserted the impact that the Revolution had on abolitionist debates and perceptions of race, particularly in America and Britain. This thesis builds on this scholarship by exploring how the early Haitian state and its first leaders were represented in American and British discourses following Haiti’s Declaration of Independence in 1804. While studies have already highlighted how Haiti’s attempts to establish its political sovereignty were severely hampered by American and British reactions to the prospect of black political leadership, this study suggests that race was only one factor in these transatlantic receptions. Indeed, Haitian leaders in the first twenty years of its independence became key reference points in American and British discussions of the foundations of political legitimacy. This thesis explores how Haiti and its early leaders were represented in American and British newspapers, periodicals, literary texts and images. It proposes that reactions to the emergence of the Haitian state were as driven by the domestic political discourses and tensions of America and Britain in the early nineteenth century as they were by ideas of race. Ultimately this study argues that by exploring the different discourses to which Haiti contributed leads to a more nuanced understanding of the reasons behind Haiti’s struggle to gain official diplomatic recognition from America and Britain in its formative years, and also a better understanding of how American and British commentators were formulating arguments regarding effective, progressive and legitimate governance in the early nineteenth century. i Statement of Originality This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. James Forde ii Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................... i Statement of Originality .................................................................................................. ii List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................ iv Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ v Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: Saint-Domingue ‘Remembered’: Lessons of the Haitian Revolution for Atlantic World Governance ............................................................ 28 Chapter Two: “The Bonaparte of the New World”: American and British Reactions to the Emergence of Emperor Dessalines ........................................... 77 Chapter Three: “The First Crowned King of the New World”: King Christophe and the Question of Legitimacy in the Atlantic World ............... 126 Chapter Four: “A Revolutionary Volcano”: The Death of Christophe and the Emergence of Boyer in American and British Political Discourse ............... 185 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 245 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 254 iii List of Illustrations 1. James Gillray, Tiddy-doll, the great French-gingerbread-baker; drawing out a new batch of kings, 1806 ...........................................................................................114 2. George Cruikshank, The New Union Club, 1819 .............................................. 166 3. Richard Evans, Henry Christophe, King of Haiti, c. 1816-1818 .................. 169 4. John Fairburn, The Ghost of Christophe, ex-King of Hayti, Appearing to the Un-Holy Alliance!!, 1821 ............................................................................................... 228 5. William Heath, The Secrets of Trop-peau disclosed: or the Imbecile Alliance of Tyranny to Crush the Universal Spirit of Liberty defeated, 1821 ............... 231 iv Acknowledgements I thank Dr. Mike Davis for his attentive supervision throughout the entirety of my candidature. Dr. Davis not only provided constant and invaluable feedback to help drive this research project from the very beginning of its inception but he also constantly challenged and inspired me to see “the bigger picture”. Our numerous meetings in which he pushed me to justify the purpose of a study such as this will continue to resonate long after this PhD and for this I will always be thankful. A great deal of gratitude must also be extended to Dr. Peter Denney and Dr. Philip Kaisary. Their insights were crucial to the direction that this study took and inspired me to explore ideas I would never have considered without their insights. In general, I was extremely fortunate to have such supportive advisers who always pushed me to contemplate further avenues for exploration. Griffith University provided me with funds to undertake this project and to conduct research trips in the UK and the United States. I am grateful for this financial support and for the research it enabled me to do. In my time at Griffith I was also fortunate to be situated within a fantastic cohort of fellow PhDs. In particular, Jill, Jo, Lisa and Robyn were a great network of support and our writing and seminar sessions were invaluable in providing me with the energy and encouragement to keep pushing through in the most challenging of times. Before embarking on this PhD, I was fortunate to work under the supervision of several encouraging scholars at the University of York during my MA studies. In particular, Dr. Zoe Norridge was always enthusiastic about my research plans and the course she convened inspired me to consider the interconnectedness and impact of histories across space and time in ways I had never contemplated. Special thanks must be extended to Dr. Jim Watt who first pointed me in the direction of nineteenth-century Haitian history. Under his guidance for my MA thesis, Dr. Watt first encouraged me to explore this vibrant and exciting area of historical study—a path that I am very thankful I followed. v I would not have started this project, let alone finished it, without the support of my friends and family in Australia, the UK, the United States and everywhere in between. Friends—too many to mention by name—have been a constant source of encouragement. Their enthusiasm (feigned or otherwise) to hear about the progress of the project not only inspired me but also provided me with the challenge of regularly trying to articulate the meaning and value of the work to those outside of the field—a humbling but invaluable exercise. Also, on my numerous research trips I was never short of a spare bed, a sofa or some form of refreshment and I am truly thankful to all those who provided me with these valuable research aids. My parents, Tony and Edie, never wavered in their encouragement or support and not once questioned my sanity, even when I did. Finally, my wife Frances deserves a special mention for inspiring me to begin this journey and for being there on every step, twist and turn of the way—for this, and for so much more, I will be eternally grateful. vi Introduction In the early nineteenth century, reports of the Haitian Revolution shook the Atlantic world to its core. Between 1791 and 1804, the colonial powers of France, Spain and England all tried and failed to subjugate the revolutionary black ex-slaves and freemen.1 The loss of France’s most prized colony in the Caribbean—the so-called ‘pearl of the Antilles’—and the victory of the revolutionary slaves over the imperial might of Europe amounted to an “unthinkable” event for the powers of the West.2 On 1 January 1804, the first leader of independent Haiti, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, addressed the citizens of Saint-Domingue and confirmed the new nation’s separation from colonial France. In the process, Dessalines proclaimed the abolition of slavery forever from the island and renamed the country, “Haiti”.3 In the four decades that followed Haiti’s Declaration of Independence, a number of leaders—all of whom had fought in the Revolution—would adopt a variety of forms of government in their attempts to