Terrorism and the Law By Justice Peter McClellan I gratefully acknowledge the considerable research of Garth Riddell and the assistance of Penny Grist in the preparation of this paper. Contents CHAPTER 1: DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS .............................................................. 6 1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................6 1.2 What is a “Terrorist Act”?................................................................................................7 1.2.1 Definition of “terrorist act” under NSW and Commonwealth Legislation...................7 1.2.2 Interpretation.................................................................................................................9 1.2.3 Geographical Scope of ”Terrorist Acts”.......................................................................9 1.3 What is a “Terrorist Organisation”? .............................................................................11 1.3.1 Historical Background ................................................................................................11 1.3.2 Definition of “terrorist organisation”..........................................................................12 1.3.3 Listing Terrorist Organisations...................................................................................12 CHAPTER 2: CONVENTIONAL CRIMINAL LAWS THAT MAY APPLY TO TERRORIST ACTS OR ORGANISATIONS ............................................................ 15 2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................15 2.2 Treason..............................................................................................................................15 2.3 Treachery and related offences.......................................................................................16 2.4 Murder..............................................................................................................................19 2.4.1 Definition and interpretation.......................................................................................19 2.4.2 Geographical scope.....................................................................................................19 2.4.3 Conspiracy ..................................................................................................................20 2.4.4 Attempt .......................................................................................................................20 2.5 Protected Persons.............................................................................................................21 2.5.1 UN Personnel..............................................................................................................22 2.5.2 Commonwealth Public Officials.................................................................................22 2.5.3 Internationally protected persons................................................................................22 2.6 Unlawful Associations......................................................................................................24 2.6.1 Definition of “Unlawful Association” ........................................................................24 2.6.2 Listing Unlawful Associations....................................................................................25 2.7 Kidnapping And Threats ...............................................................................................26 2.7.1 Kidnapping and Hostage Taking ................................................................................26 2.7.2 Threats.........................................................................................................................28 2.8 Suicide ...............................................................................................................................29 2.9 Weapons and Explosives .................................................................................................30 2.10 Other Offences ...............................................................................................................31 2.10.1 Computer Offences ...................................................................................................32 2.10.2 Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity .................................................................32 2 2.10.3 Hostile activities in a foreign state............................................................................32 2.10.4 To train or drill another person in the use of arms....................................................33 2.11 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................33 CHAPTER 3: NEW TERRORIST OFFENCES ........................................................ 35 3.1 Introduction and summary .............................................................................................35 TABLE 1: NEW TERRORIST OFFENCES.............................................................. 36 3.2 Terrorist Acts ...................................................................................................................38 3.2.1 Offences ......................................................................................................................38 3.2.2 Scope of Application and Relevance of Intention ......................................................39 3.2.3 Case study of preparatory offences: R v Faheem Khalid Lodhi (unreported, NSWSC, 23 December 2005)..............................................................................................................40 3.3 Terrorist Organisations...................................................................................................41 3.3.1 Offences Relating to Involvement with the Activities of a Terrorist Organisation....41 3.3.2 Intentionally associating with terrorist organisation members ...................................43 3.3.3 Potential Problems with the Terrorist Organisation Provisions..................................44 3.3.4 Extraterritorial operation of the terrorist organisation provisions ..............................45 3.4 Harming Australians .......................................................................................................46 3.5 Hoaxes and Other Offences Using Postal or Carriage Services ..................................47 3.6 International Terrorism ..................................................................................................48 3.7 Financing Terrorism: Freezable Assets.........................................................................48 3.8 Espionage and Related Activities ...................................................................................49 3.9 Offences Relating to Foreign Travel Documents ..........................................................50 3.10 Aviation Offences...........................................................................................................51 3.11 Sedition............................................................................................................................52 CHAPTER 4: TERRORIST OFFENCES AND THE CRIMINAL CHARGE AND TRIAL PROCESS .................................................................................................... 54 4.1 Detention after Arrest......................................................................................................54 4.1.1 Detention Warrants in respect of Terrorist Offences – Commonwealth ....................55 4.1.2 Calculation of the Detention Period – Commonwealth Detention Warrants..............55 4.1.3 Issuing Commonwealth Detention Warrants..............................................................56 4.2 Bail and Non-parole Periods...........................................................................................56 4.3 Disclosure of National Security Information.................................................................57 4.3.1 Enactment and Objectives...........................................................................................57 3 4.3.2 Definitions...................................................................................................................57 4.3.3 Alteration to Criminal Procedure................................................................................58 4.3.4 Disclosure certificates.................................................................................................59 4.3.5 Closed hearings...........................................................................................................60 4.3.6 Breach of a non-disclosure order or certificate, or a failure to notify the Attorney- General.................................................................................................................................61 4.3.7 Criticism and interpretation of the national security information provisions.............62 4.3.8 Special Advocates.......................................................................................................63 4.4 Video Link Evidence in Terrorism Related Proceedings.............................................64 CHAPTER 5: WARRANTS AND ORDERS: CONVENTIONAL POWERS ............. 67 5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................67 5.2. Search Warrants .............................................................................................................67