A SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF INTERSCHOLASTIC SOCCER IN THE UNITED STATES I I By ~1ICHAEL WILLIAM JOHNSON " j Bachelor of Science South Dakota State University Brookings, South Dakota 1974 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE December, 1978 w~;~ !078 J~8~ cop.~ A SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF INTERSCHOLASTIC SOCCER IN THE UNITED STATES Thesis Approved: ~ ~~~: ::::::::=::=::~ ~ - ({) ea~ 17~17~~~-Dean of the Graduate College i i PREFACE This thesis was concerned with the diffusion and spatial varia­ tions of interscholastic soccer in the United States. The primary objective is to analyze the recent growth and areal differentiation of soccer and to determine the significance of the sport in American high sc hoo 1s . My sincerest gratitude is extended to my major adviser, Dr. John F. Rooney, Jr., whose expertise and sage advice was of immeasurable assistance in the completion of this paper. I would also like to express my appreciation to Dr. Robert E. Norris and Dr. George 0. Carney, whose interest and encouragement did not go unnoticed. A special tribute is due Donald Wade and Gayle Maxwell, who are largely responsible for the cartographies contained in this thesis. Their contributions are deeply appreciated. To Linda Allred, who managed to coalesce this thesis into a coherent text, I convey my thanks. Ultimately, I wish to acknowledge all those members of the faculty and my friends who have made it a pleasurable experience during my graduate residency. Without their presence and occasional Friday night donations, I may have cashed in my chips long ago. i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 The International Sport ... 1 The Scope of the Investigation 5 Objectives and Procedures .. 6 Review of the Literature ... 6 I I. THE HISTORY OF SOCCER AND ITS DEVELOPMENT AS A SPORT IN THE UNITED STATES . 15 Origins and Diffusions .... 15 The English Influence .. 16 Birth of Modern Soccer . 18 Growth of Soccer in the United States 20 The Rise and Fall of Soccer 20 Resurgence . 22 The City Sport . 23 Soccer in St. Louis ...... 23 The Diffusion of Intercollegiate Soccer 24 Toward Attaining Respectability .. 36 Interscholastic Soccer . 38 International and Professional Competition 40 Sunmary . 42 III. METHODOLOGY OF THE ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFUSION AND THE SPATIAL VARIATION OF HIGH SCHOOL SOCCER 50 Compiling the Sample ....... 50 Size of the Sample ..... 50 Levels of the Sample .... 51 Determining Patterns and Trends 52 IV. RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS ........ 55 Diffusion of Interscholastic Soccer 55 Interscholastic Participation in 1967-68 58 Interscholastic Participation in 1971-72 58 Interscholastic Participation in 1975-76 62 Interscholastic Participation in 1977-78 67 Diversity in State-to-State Participation 76 The Northeast 76 The Midwest . 77 iv Chapter Page The South .............. 78 The West .............. 80 The Central Plains and Rocky Mountains 81 Spatial Variations of Soccer on the Three-Digit Zip Code Area Level 82 Significance of Major Cities in Relation to Interscholastic Participation 99 Summary . 110 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 114 Implicatioris ..... 114 . Further Investigation 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 119 APPENDIX .. 123 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page I. Number of Colleges and Universities Playing Intercollegiate Soccer in 1960 Compared to 1977 According to State ..... 39 II. Location of Professional Soccer Teams in the United States in 1968 and 1978 ............ •· . 45 III. Number of High Schools Offering Soccer, 1962, 1968, 1972, 1976, and 1978 ............ 57 IV. States with High Schools Offering Soccer on the Interscholastic Level 1967-68 (Boys) ..... 59 V. States with High Schools Offering Soccer on the Interscholastic Level· 1971-72 (Boys) ..... 61 VI. States with High Schools Offering Soccer on the Interscholastic Level 1975-76 (Boys) ..... 65 VII. States with High Schools Offering Soccer on the Interscholastic Level 1977-78 (Boys) ..... 68 VIII. High School Participation in Soccer and Number of Coaches Per State 1977-78 ........ ; . 71 IX. Listing of the Three~Digit Zip Code Areas Where 50 Per Cent or More of the High Schools Offer Soccer 1977-78 . ·. 87 X. Cities in the United States Having a Minimum of 10 High Schools Where Soccer is Offered in One or More Schools ... · .............. 100 XI. Comparison of Public Schools to Parochial and Private Schools Offering Soccer in Metropolitan Cities 1977-78 . 107 XII. Comparison of the Number of Soccer Coaches to the Number of Coaches in 12 Selected Sports (ByHighSchool) .............. 124 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation- 1910 27 2. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation - 1920 28 3. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation - 1930 29 4. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation - 1940 30 5. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation - 1950 31 6. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation - 1960 32 7. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation - 1970 33 8. Intercollegiate Soccer Participation - 1977 34 9. U.S. NASL Cities - 1968 43 10. U.S. NASL Cities - 1978 44 11. Per Capita Participation in High School Soccer- 1971-72. 63 12. Generalized Dates of Adoption for Interscholastic Soccer - By State . 75 13. High School Soccer Participation - 1975-76. 83 14. High School Soccer Participation - 1977-78. 84 15. High School Soccer Coaches Per Program - 1975-76. 96 16. High School Soccer Coaches Per Program - 1977-78. 97 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The International Sport At the present time throughout the world, soccer prevails as the leading and most popular sport. On an international level, soccer far surpasses all other sports in attracting the largest number of par­ ticipants and spectators. It is one of the few sports which transcends geographical, cultural, and political barriers. In an age where sports competition has evolved into ceremonious and extravagant public exhibitions, soccer stands at the forefront in instigating mass bedlam on a global scale. Crowds two to three times those which attend football and baseball contests in the United States are frequent occurrences in places where soccer is played. The pageantry and media-induced drama that accompanies America's Super Bowl and World Series more closely resemble a dirge when compared to the universal interest and excitement generated by the World Cup matches in soccer. In some countries, everyday social, economic and governmental processes are altered or halted by games of national im­ portance. Numerous reports of spectator hysteria, which have resulted in rioting, violence and fatalities, are attributed to the fervor and extreme fan behavior associated with critical matches among rival teams and political states. 2 Today, soccer is played in more than 140 nations on six conti­ nents, and in Europe and South America, it is the predominate sport. In 1972, the Federation Internationale de Football Association, the major governing body of organized soccer, estimated that there were between 16 and 20 million participants of the sport, nearly three quarters of whom resided in European countries. 1 The Soviet Union and West Germany claim approximately one-half million registered players, respectively. 2 England lists more than one million club participants and 10,000 professional players, and, in the Netherlands, one citizen out of every twenty-one is active in the sport.3 If one word were to be suitable in describing soccer's wide­ spread popularity, "simplicity" may be the most appropriate. The fundamentals are very basic: the kicking of a ball in an open field of play by a group of persons. The rudiments of the game have aided in the adoption of soccer by a diversity of nations, from the highly industrialized countries of Western Europe to the developing states of Africa and Asia. Historically, soccer began back during the ancient civiliza- tions of man. There are sundry references of the past which describe a ball being kicked in games or ceremonies. In 3000 B.C. in China, such an activity was called Tsu ~u; the Greeks called it episkiyros; Harpaston in Roman times; Kemari or Kernat by the Japanese in 600 A.D.; Calcio in medieval Florence; Gomacari in Mexico; and poltapok in Yuca­ tan, to name several. 4 During the last 5,000 years, the game assumed many alterations, and it has not been until this century that soccer became an "internationally organized" sport. 3 The anomaly concerning the worldwide popularity and favored status of soccer among nations is the people in the United States' reluctance to regard it as a principal and significant sport. Only in recent years has soccer achieved any major recognition as a sport played in America, and that is greatly attributed to the formation of the profes­ sional North American Soccer League (NASL). The professional teams have drawn large attendance in cities scattered across the country, but their presence goes virtually unnoticed by a society totally en­ meshed in football, baseball, and an array of sports. On the collegiate level, soccer is generally considered a minor sport among the colleges and universities that participate. At many of those institutions, there are high percentages of foreign students from countries which are "soccer hotbeds", comprising the rosters of varsity teams. The situation is unchanged in the secondary and ele­ mentary school systems. Soccer is promoted and emphasized on a national basis much less than the more traditional sports. On other levels, such as youth programs, private and parochial leagues, and amateur clubs, soccer still is not as prevalent as within their counterparts in some Western European nations. The apparent paucity of soccer opportunities in the United States has precipitated this country's lack of success in developing players and national teams capable of competing against other nations. This has been quite true in the past three decades. The United States has won only a single World Cup title (1950 versus England), and since that momentous feat, Americans have experienced hard times and have failed to qualify for the finals.