From boundary to development: The trajectory of Indigenous alliances and disputes for addressing development issues in northern Chile Dante Choque Cáseres A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Sydney Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Sydney 2018 Statement of Originality I certify that this thesis submitted to the University of Sydney for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is the product of my original work and contains no material previously published except where due reference is made. The information collected through fieldwork was obtained with the approval of the Human Research Ethics Committee and after full consent of participants. Dante Choque Caseres August 2018 i Human ethics approval Human research ethics approval was granted for the thesis prior to commencing fieldwork through the University of Sydney Human Ethics Committee. Project number: 2014/671. Funding This research was funded, in part, by a scholarship of the Programa de Formación de Capital Humano Avanzado of the Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (CONICYT), and supported by the Center for Intercultural and Indigenous Research, CIIR, Grant: CONICYT/FONDAP/15110006. Translations of the thesis title In Spanish Language (my native language): Desde la frontera hacia el desarrollo: Trayectoria de las alianzas y disputas Indígenas para resolver los problemas de desarrollo en el norte de Chile. In Aymara Indigenous Language (the mother tongue of my parents, but sadly not mine): Qurpatsarantawi: Indígenan ch’axwantawit mayacht’awipat, chile kupi markan jan walt’awinakapat sarantas askicht’añataki. ii Abstract This thesis provides an analysis of the trajectory of Indigenous organisations’ development goals in the border region of Arica y Parinacota, Chile. The convergence of development notions from the Indigenous Peoples on one side and the State on the other is generally viewed as a field of dispute and resistance. However, I argue that development processes in the borderland have led Indigenous people to draw their relationship with the State institutions into a collaborative space. The sovereignty over Arica y Parinacota was transferred from Peru to Chile in a process that started during the War of the Pacific (1879-1883) and ended with the Treaty of Lima (1929). Then, given its geopolitical importance, different governments took special measures to stimulate the local economy (1958-1976), strengthen border security (1973-1989) and grant administrative independence (2007). Meanwhile, in the 1990s, authorities translated the Indigenous Peoples’ development demands into an institutional framework. Throughout these periods, most Indigenous people in the borderland have acted strategically conforming to the law, as well as used their identities and cultural practices to build relationships with governments. To analyse the interactions of Indigenous people, the framework combines multiple theoretical lenses such as development theory, institutionalism and social constructivism. Through it, the thesis maintains that certain Indigenous groups recall the memory about local historical injustices and development projects to gain a dominant position. Thus, they empower or suppress voices from their peers in the political arena. This research contributes to Indigenous Studies by examining how progressive political agency of urban and trans-local Indigenous people reinforces unequal power relations, and to Development Studies by looking into how participatory policies allow marginalised social groups to create distinctive discourses, and thus to influence resource allocation. ∞ iii Resumen (Abstract in Spanish) Esta tesis proporciona un análisis de la trayectoria de objetivos de desarrollo establecidos por las organizaciones Indígenas en la región fronteriza de Arica y Parinacota, Chile. La convergencia de las nociones de desarrollo desde los Pueblos Indígenas por una parte y el Estado por otra, es generalmente vista como un campo de disputa y resistencia. Sin embargo, argumento que los planes y políticas de desarrollo en la zona fronteriza han llevado a las personas Indígenas y sus organizaciones a establecer relaciones con las instituciones del Estado en un espacio colaborativo. La soberanía sobre la región de Arica y Parinacota fue transferida desde Perú a Chile en un proceso que comenzó durante la Guerra del Pacífico (1879-1883) y finalizó con el Tratado de Lima (1929). Luego, dada la importancia geopolítica, distintos gobiernos han tomado medidas excepcionales para estimular la economía local (1958-1976), fortalecer la seguridad fronteriza (1973-1989) y entregar independencia administrativa (2007). Por otra parte, en los 1990s, las autoridades traducen las demandas de desarrollo expresadas por las Pueblos Indígenas en un marco institucional no diferenciado. A lo largo de estos periodos, la mayoría de las personas Indígenas en la zona fronteriza han actuado estratégicamente apegado a la normativa jurídica, así también han usado su identidades y prácticas culturales para establecer relaciones con los gobiernos. Para analizar las interacciones de los individuos Indígenas, el marco teórico combina diferentes enfoques tales como la teoría del desarrollo, institucionalismo y constructivismo social. A través de este, la tesis sostiene que ciertos grupos Indígena evocan las memorias sobre injusticias históricas y proyectos de desarrollo locales para obtener una posición dominante. Así, ellos fortalecen o suprimen voces de sus pares en la arena política. Esta investigación contribuye a los Estudios Indígenas examinando cómo la agencia política de las personas Indígenas urbanas y translocales refuerza las relaciones dispares de poder, y a los Estudios del Desarrollo investigando cómo las políticas participativas permiten a los grupos sociales marginados crear discursos diferenciados para incidir en la asignación de recursos. ∞ iv Jukkh’a aruna (Abstract in Aymara) Aka lurawixa uñacht’ayañan muniwa kunjams sarantawayi desarrollo apnaqawinaka, indígena tantachawinaka Arika y Parinaquta, Chile, uksatuqina. Kunjamasa amuyu sarantawinakaxa, indígena markanakata Estado uksatuqimpi mayacht’asiwayaxi, kunjamarakisa aka pa amyawi thakinakaxa t’aqtawayapxi. Amuyt’ataxa aka pa sarantawinakaxa, aksa qurpa tuqinxa mayacht’atawa sarantaski.. Nayra pachaxa, Arika y Parinaquta Perúmarkat aptaqatanwa, kuna pachatixa Guerra del Pacífico (1879-1883) utjawayki, uka uraqinakaxa Chile markaruw pasawayxhi, Tratado de Lima (1929) ukan qilqantata. Jutirinakansti, Arika y Parinaquta, Estado chilinusti irpirinakapa, aksa tuqi uñjañataki, amnaqañataki, jach’anchañataki wali amuyunaka, lurawinaka sartawayapxi, palla pallanakas uñjañapataki puqantawayapxi. Ña 1990s uksatsti, chili marka irpirinakaxa aptawayapxarikiwa kuna mayiwinakas, munakinakas indígena markanakata utji, irpirinakaxa ch’amanchawayapxi igualpuraki, taqinakataki uka sarantakinaka. Aksa pachanakansti, ayllunaka irpirinakata yaw sawayapxiw uka uñachawinaka, liyinakasa phuqawayapxi, sarnaqawinakapas, amuyt’awinakapas, chili markaruw uñkatawayapxi. Uka luriwi sarantañapatakixi, Indígena jaqi uksatsti aptakatawa amuyawinaka: teoría del desarrollo, institucionalismo, constructivismo social, ukanaka. Uka amuyunakatsti, aka lurawixa sañ uñacht’an muniwa kunjams ma qawqha indígena markanaxa amtapxi t’aqisiw sarnaqawinakapata nayrapach jichha pacha uñtasa, wali jichatpacha sarantañataki. Ukham jupanakaxa amstayayapxi, tantachawi, uksatuqina. Aka lirakixa ch’amanchawayiwa Estudios Indígenas uksatuqiru, kunjamas amuyuwinakapaxa sarantaski Estado chileno ukampi, kunjamas indígena jach’a markanakana, ayllunakana yaw sawayapxi. Kunkamas ayllunakaxa mayacht’asipxi, ch’axwasa, sarantanxí Estado chilinu ukampi. ∞ v In memory of Victor “Manuel” Noriega Gaviño Andean Storyteller and Musician, father of Leyla (1941-2015) Dedicado a Victor “Manuel” Noriega Gaviño Narrador y Músico Andino, padre de Leyla (1941-2015) Tata Victor “Manuel” Noriega Gaviño, jupataki Amuyiri-phust’asiri, leylan tatapa (1941-2015) vi Acknowledgments This research would have not been possible without the contribution and confidence of 40 Indigenous women and men, who, without knowing me so well, generously made time to talk to me about their leadership experience and Indigenous culture from the Chilean tri-border region. I am truly thankful to them. The most of their views, concerns, conflicts and interests on the development of Indigenous Peoples are in this research. I expect, through this study, not only to clarify doubts, but also to open new questions about the development that we should have as Indigenous people. I would like to thank Dr Fernanda Peñaloza for supporting me during the development of this study and giving me freedom to connect and disconnect different knowledge. I am also very grateful to Dr Luis Angosto-Ferrandez, who, in addition to fulfil his role of associated supervisor, has been a good friend, through his teachings I was able to grow beyond academic realm. In same way, I have to thank the “Coordinator of Indigenous Peoples’ Women of Arica y Parinacota” Indigenous Association, the Department of Spanish and Latin American Studies of the University of Sydney, the Center for Intercultural and Indigenous Research-CIIR, the “Vicente Dagnino” Historical Archive of the University of Tarapacá, and the National Commission of Sciences and Technology-CONICYT, for all their different supports, which allowed me to finish this research. Additionally, I am