The Development of the British Conspiracy Thriller 1980-1990 Paul S. Lynch This thesis is submitted to the University of Hertfordshire in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. January 2017 Abstract This thesis adopts a cross-disciplinary approach to explore the development of the conspiracy thriller genre in British cinema during the 1980s. There is considerable academic interest in the Hollywood conspiracy cycle that emerged in America during the 1970s. Films such as The Parallax View (Pakula, 1975) and All the President’s Men (Pakula, 1976) are indicative of the genre, and sought to reflect public anxieties about perceived government misdeeds and misconduct within the security services. In Europe during the same period, directors Costa-Gavras and Francesco Rosi were exploring similar themes of state corruption and conspiracy in films such as State of Siege (1972) and Illustrious Corpses (1976). This thesis provides a comprehensive account of how a similar conspiracy cycle emerged in Britain in the following decade. We will examine the ways in which British film-makers used the conspiracy form to reflect public concerns about issues of defence and national security, and questioned the measures adopted by the British government and the intelligence community to combat Soviet subversion during the last decade of the Cold War. Unlike other research exploring espionage in British film and television, this research is concerned exclusively with the development of the conspiracy thriller genre in mainstream cinema. This has been achieved using three case studies: Defence of the Realm (Drury, 1986), The Whistle Blower (Langton, 1987) and The Fourth Protocol (MacKenzie, 1987). For each case study chapter, interviews have been conducted with the film-makers in order to gain insight into the aims and motivations that underpin each film. As well as employing these first-hand accounts of the production contexts, close analysis of film style is provided in order to understand the ways in which the British genre is informed stylistically by its Hollywood and European forebears. This means that for the first time, the British conspiracy cycle can be understood within a wider historical and cinematic context. Detractors of the conspiracy genre argue that it offers audiences a simplistic view of complex political events. We will reflect on this criticism and evaluate the extent to which the British films provide meaningful political comment within the conventions of mainstream cinema. i Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... i Contents .................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................. iii Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter One: The Hollywood Conspiracy Thriller .............................................................. 23 Chapter Two: The European Conspiracy Thriller ............................................................... 42 Chapter Three: The Influence of John le Carré on the British Conspiracy Thriller ......... 63 Chapter Four: The Political Context to the British Conspiracy Thriller ........................... 80 Chapter Five: Case Study: Defence of the Realm (Drury, 1986) .............................................. 99 Chapter Six: Case Study: The Whistle Blower (Langton, 1986) ............................................ 122 Chapter Seven: Case Study: The Fourth Protocol (MacKenzie, 1987) ................................. 141 Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 158 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 171 ii Acknowledgements This thesis is the result of the tremendous support I have received from many people. I would like to begin by thanking my supervisors at the University of Hertfordshire. Professor Tony Shaw and Dr Steven Peacock have brought considerable knowledge and experience to bear in supporting me through the challenges of researching and writing the thesis. I thank them both immensely for knowing exactly when to question, cajole and console over the last few years. They are a credit to their academic fields, and their work has inspired me more than they will know. I would also like to thank the governors, staff and students at St Mary’s Catholic School in Bishop’s Stortford who have provided support in ways too numerous to mention here. I am grateful to count myself a part of such a supportive community. My good friends Dan, Hywel and the Heslops have all listened attentively and enthusiastically to tales from my research that I am sure would have sent other folk to sleep. Hyw, Robert and Nick in particular, have consistently encouraged me to read particular books and watch particular films. Their enthusiasm for all things Cold War continues to be a source of great pleasure and inspiration. I am indebted to my parents, Spencer and Monica Lynch for their encouragement, as well as my sisters Wendy and Tracy and their families, with whom I have enjoyed many happy times away from the intensity of researching and writing. My greatest debt of gratitude is to my wife, Laëtitia. There is no question that without her love, encouragement and support I would never have begun this process, or had the stamina to endure its challenges. For all those days in the study and the evenings away from the sofa, I thank her for her understanding. To our daughter Camille, who arrived as the research began, I apologise for the times when my books took me away from the park, the pool or the playroom. To Ludwig the Schnauzer, I am thankful for the long walks that forced me to stop, reflect and formulate fresh ideas. I am very much looking forward to precious time with you all in the near future. iii Introduction In exploring the development of the British conspiracy thriller genre in mainstream cinema, the first aim of this research is to understand the ways in which it was influenced by three sources: the Hollywood conspiracy cycle of the 1970s, the European conspiracy thrillers of the late 1960s and 1970s, and the novels of John le Carré. The thesis begins by examining each of these sources in turn. Specifically, we will explore the cultural context from which these texts emerged, and how the theme of conspiracy is presented in each. Thereafter, we arrive at the second and most important aim of the thesis: three British film case studies are examined in order to understand how British film-makers used the conspiracy form as means of responding to the political climate of the mid- 1980s. The British case studies are: Defence of the Realm (Drury, 1985), The Whistle Blower (Langton, 1986) and The Fourth Protocol (MacKenzie, 1987). These films are indicative of the British conspiracy form, and foreground a clear message: the British security services adopted unethical methods under the auspices of the Conservative government, in order to combat perceived Soviet subversion during the last decade of the Cold War. This research is unique because it is the first comprehensive study of the British conspiracy cycle in mainstream cinema, which has hitherto been overlooked by film scholars and cultural historians. Furthermore, to date, no academic study has sought to understand the British conspiracy cycle in relation to the European and American forms of the genre: for the first time, meaningful links will be drawn between the Hollywood, European and British styles of conspiracy, in order to appreciate the British cycle within a wider historical and filmic context. This introduction will provide a review of the literature relevant to the research and thereafter explains the methodology underpinning the research process. However, before exploring these areas, it is perhaps useful to define the term conspiracy thriller. Conspiracy thriller narratives present a David and Goliath struggle between an individual and the state; the insurmountable odds faced by an ocnophobic protagonist, or ‘hater of 1 thrills’. 1 Michael Balints identifies this kind of protagonist as a recurring feature in suspense narratives in general: the ocnophobic protagonist is an unwilling or unwitting hero forced to confront a dilemma in which familiar situations are replaced or become unfamiliar and threatening.2 The protagonist is an empathetic everyman, whose journey of discovery results in anagnorisis: a moment of critical discovery of an unethical plot by the antagonist. In contrast, the antagonist in the conspiracy thriller is enigmatic and impenetrable; almost always a large corporation or state department. It is normal for conspiracy thriller narratives to conclude with the nefarious plot being thwarted by the ocnophobic protagonist. However, this successful resolution is mitigated either by the demise of the protagonist, or by an irredeemable reversal of their fortune. Such narratives usually include an epilogue which suggests that the conspiracy will re-emerge. The enduring message of the conspiracy thriller is that the antagonist is ultimately more enduring than the power of individual