Management information for the monk parakeet Myiopsitta monachus IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) Preventative measures: In 1900 the United States enacted the Lacey Act for exotic species control, but excluded parrots and later all psittacines from control efforts. By 1960 more than 12,000 monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus ) were legally imported each year to the US. In 1973 State departments under the support of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service began an eradication effort. New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and California accounted for 87% of the 163 monk parakeets killed. California was the only state that continued control efforts by implementing legislation that prohibited the importation, transportation or possession of M. monachus without special permission. (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Due to the legal importation and spread of 15,000 birds since 1972, Chile invoked a ban in 1997 on M. monachus. (Iriarte, Lobos, & Jaksic, 2005). In the United States, although there is no national policy for management and control of the monk parakeet; a number of states have legislation that prohibits the importation, transportation, or possession of monk parakeets. These states include California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Kansas, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Wyoming where it is also illegal to own or sell monk parakeets. Florida currently has no restrictions (Newman et al, 2004). The Bureau of Rural Sciences, Australia, recently developed a risk assessment model (Bomford, 2003) which has been endorsed by the National Vertebrate Pests Committee and may be used as the basis for future exotic species import applications. To assign an exotic species to a threat category, three risk scores are calculated: the risk that (1) an escaped or released individual would harm people, (2) escaped or released individuals would establish a wild free-living population (3) the species would be a pest if a wild population did establish. These three risk scores are then used to assign the exotic species to one of four threat categories: extreme, serious, moderate or low. Myiopsitta monachus has been assigned an Extreme threat category for Australia. These animals should not be allowed to enter, nor be kept in any State or Territory. (Special consideration may be given to scientific institutions on a case by case basis.) Any species that has not been assessed previously should be considered to be in the Extreme Threat Category and should be treated accordingly, until a risk assessment is conducted. Physical: In Dade County, Florida, a study was conducted on crop damage caused by non-native bird populations. The study showed that longan orchards populated by monk parakeets experienced dramatic increases in damage, up to thirty times as much as fields where monk parakeets weren't present. Hanging carcasses, stretching reflecting tape over the trees, and netting individual panicles on trees are some of the control methods that have been attempted. Future recommended strategies include: tall exclusion nets surrounding the fields, and some kind of control or reduction of monk parakeet populations. Physical deterrents are also a potential method of preventing nesting, particularly on high risk locations such as power transformers. Various types of structures have been tested, but there must be a "seal" between the pole and structure so that nesting materials cannot be inserted. Currently, trapping birds combined with nest removal is the only viable short-term strategy for distribution poles and substations. However this strategy is labour intensive and must be ongoing and has public acceptance issues (Newman et al, 2004). Argentina has attempted several control methods, including shooting, snaring, netting, and nest burning without success. From 1958-1960 bounties were paid for 427,206 pairs of M. monachus feet (Spreyer and Bucher,1998) but the attempt at population control was completely ineffective (Campbell, 2000). Eradication of M. monachus has proved ineffective in part because non-breeding adults will begin reproducing as breeding adults are killed. (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Chemical: Spreyer and Bucher (1998) report that in South America, "a recently developed technique, the application of highly toxic organophosphorus pesticides like Azodrin or Carbofuran mixed with petroleum grease to nest entrance, may kill both adults and nestlings that use nest. Such a method, however, poses risk of secondary poisoning to raptors and other types of wildlife." Because of public opposition to lethal control methods of the monk parakeet, non-lethal methods such as contraception are now being developed to help control the spread of feral populations (Yoder et al, 2007). Monk parakeets are an ideal species to control through reproductive inhibition as they have low dispersal rates (Martin and Bucher, 1993) and frequent bird feeders which potentially could be used to deliver a contraceptive. A recent study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the contraceptive DiazaCon™ (20, 25- diazacholesterol dihydrochloride). DiazaCon™ prevents conversion of desmosterol to cholesterol, which is a precursor to the hormones required for egg formation, ovulation, egg laying and sperm formation. Yoder et al (2007) administered DiazaCon™ to birds either by gavage or through treated sunflower seeds for 5-10 consecutive days. Cholesterol concentrations decreased significantly concomitant with a significant increase in desmosterol concentrations in treated groups, but did not vary by sex. Cholesterol remained significantly suppressed 11 weeks after treatment. Birds in the treated group laid an average of 1.6 ± 0.7 eggs per clutch compared with 3.9 ± 1.1 eggs per clutch in the untreated control group. None of the eggs laid by treated birds hatched compared with 1.1 ± 0.6 eggs per clutch hatching in the control group. Mortality occurred in the gavage trails, which is consistent with studies that associate DiazaCon™ with adverse health effects (e.g. Yoder et al, 2004 in Yoder et al, 2007). However no mortality was observed in the trials where the birds were allowed to feed freely. These results indicate that feeding DiazaCon™ to monk parakeets for 5-10 days reduces plasma cholesterol sufficiently to affect reproduction for the length of a breeding season, and is a promising oral contraceptive that should be further investigated in a field setting with monk parakeets (Yoder et al, 2007). Biological Control: Myiopsitta monachus Long-term control such as identifying a biological control agent would clearly be desirable. One such potential natural biological control, Sarcocystis falcatula, is a protozoan considered harmful to other parakeet species. However, the monk parakeet was found resistant to S. falcatula. Integrated Management A recent study modelled populations of monk parakeet populations using a population viability analysis (PVA) model, and how populations may be affected by management programmes. Based on simulations, control by harvesting individuals and destroying nests would require extensive effort to reduce the rate of population growth of monk parakeets or reduce overall population size using these methods. Monk parakeet populations appear to be growing at such as rapid rate that only a massive effort would slow or reverse this trend. Removing individuals or nests requires effort that may not be practical. Pruett-Jones et al (2007) recommend an integrated management approach. This may include localised removal of certain nests that may pose particular problems, such as on power structures combined with population reduction through trapping or use of chemosterilants such as DiazaCon™. .