THE EVOLUTION OF YEATS’S DANCE IMAGERY: THE BODY, GENDER, AND NATIONALISM Deng-Huei Lee, B.A., M.A. Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS August 2003 APPROVED: David Holdeman, Major Professor Peter Shillingsburg, Committee Member Scott Simpkins, Committee Member Brenda Sims, Chair of Graduate Studies in English James Tanner, Chair of the Department of English C. Neal Tate, Dean of the Robert B. Toulouse School of Graduate Studies Lee, Deng-Huei, The Evolution of Yeats’s Dance Imagery: The Body, Gender, and Nationalism. Doctor of Philosophy (British Literature), August 2003, 168 pp., 6 illustrations, 147 titles. Tracing the development of his dance imagery, this dissertation argues that Yeats’s collaborations with various early modern dancers influenced his conceptions of the body, gender, and Irish nationalism. The critical tendency to read Yeats’s dance emblems in light of symbolist- decadent portrayals of Salome has led to exaggerated charges of misogyny, and to neglect of these emblems’ relationship to the poet’s nationalism. Drawing on body criticism, dance theory, and postcolonialism, this project rereads the politics that underpin Yeats’s idea of the dance, calling attention to its evolution and to the heterogeneity of its manifestations in both written texts and dramatic performances. While the dancer of Yeats’s texts follow the dictates of male-authored scripts, those in actual performances of his works acquired more agency by shaping choreography. In addition to working directly with Michio Ito and Ninette de Valois, Yeats indirectly collaborated with such trailblazers of early modern dance as Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Maud Allan, and Ruth St. Denis. These collaborations shed important light on the germination of early modern dance and on current trends in the performative arts. Registering anti-imperialist and anti-industrialist agendas, the early Yeats’s dancing Sidhe personify a romantic nationalism that seeks to inspire resistance to the cultural machinery of British colonization. In his middle career, these collective Sidhe transmute into the solitary figure of a bird-woman-witch dancer, who, resembling the soloists of early modern dance, occupies center stage without any support from men and (to some extent) contests patriarchal assumptions. The late Yeats satirizes the imposition of sexual, racial, and religious purity on postcolonial Irish identity by means of Salome-like dances in which “fair” dancers hold the severed heads of “foul” spectators. These dances blur customary socio-political boundaries between fair and foul, classical and grotesque. Early to late, the evolution of Yeats’s dancers reflects his gradual incorporation of more innovative female roles partly resembling those created by the pioneers of modern dance. Copyright 2003 by Deng-Huei Lee ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. David Holdeman whose advice and input helped me render a fascination with Yeats’s dance imagery into an interdisciplinary project, and finally into a dissertation. From the fine art of crafting effective sentences and well-organized paragraphs to scholarly or casual discussions about Yeats, he made the whole process a great learning experience for me. I also want to thank Dr. Peter Shillingsburg and Dr. Scott Simpkins for reading my manuscripts and for contributing great insight to my dissertation. I am especially indebted to my parents, Zhu-Shong Lee and May-Yun Huang, who nurtured my dream and supported me from the beginning to the very end of my doctoral program. To them, I dedicate my dissertation. I would also like to extend my appreciation to the following persons: my grandmother Yu-Sia Shi, my uncle Wen-Jin Huang, my brother Yun-I Lee, and my friends Ya-Yu Liu and Hsiu-Min Hsu. Whether calling from Taiwan, Denver, or San Jose, they always cheered me on with encouraging words. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..........................................................................................................iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ......................................................................................................v ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................vi Chapter Introduction: Yeats and Dance ................................................................................................1 1. Dancing Troops of the Sidhe: Deathless Dancing Bodies and Yeats’s Early Nationalism .12 2. “bird, woman, or witch”: Solitary Dancers and Middle Yeats’s Gender Politics...............52 3. Crazy Jane Looking at Salome: Tension between the Dancing Body and Old Age..........103 Coda: Moving Forward .......................................................................................................153 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................157 iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (All illustrations are used with permission from the Dance Collection, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations) 1. Michio Ito as the Guardian of the Well in Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well (1916) 61 2. Michio Ito’s Noh-inspired statuesque posture 66 3. Isadora Duncan’s solo dance Redemption (1915) 74 4. Maud Allan’s dance The Vision of Salome (1908) 84 5. Loie Fuller’s dance La danse du Lys (1900) 116 6. Martha Graham (right) in Primitive Mysteries (1931) 165 v ABBREVIATIONS A Collected Works of W.B. Yeats V.3: Autobiographies ASD Ah, Sweet Dancer CL1 The Collected Letters of W.B. Yeats V.1: 1865-1895 CL3 The Collected Letters of W.B. Yeats V.3: 1901-1904 E Explorations E&I Essays and Introductions L The Letters of W.B. Yeats LA&R The Collected Works of W.B. Yeats V.10: Later Articles and Reviews M Memoirs Myth Mythologies P&I The Collected Works of W.B. Yeats V.6: Prefaces and Introductions SS The Senate Speeches of W.B. Yeats Uncoll1 Uncollected Prose by W.B. Yeats V.1 Uncoll2 Uncollected Prose by W.B. Yeats V.2 V A Vision VP The Variorum Edition of the Poems of W.B. Yeats VPl The Variorum Edition of the Plays of W.B. Yeats vi Introduction: Yeats and Dance Labour is blossoming or dancing where The body is not bruised to pleasure soul, Nor beauty born out of its own despair, Nor blear-eyed wisdom out of midnight oil. O chestnut tree, great rooted blossomer, Are you the leaf, the blossom or the bole? O body swayed to music, O brightening glance, How can we know the dancer from the dance? ---Yeats, “Among School Children” I. At the age of sixty, while evaluating the children’s learning environment at St Otteran’s School in Waterford, Yeats reasserted his idea of Unity of Being through which education should bring about harmonious unity between the body and mind instead of dispensing abstract thinking and discipline. Triggered by both the wasted image of an old Maud Gonne and apprehension for the schoolchildren’s future, Yeats evoked one of his favorite symbols, the dancer who moves in accord with the mystery of being and whirls out the wrongs of fanatic political and religious pursuits. The aesthetics proposed in this poem is one that unifies the body and soul, beauty and wisdom; to Yeats, this unity is best expressed through the metaphor of dance. Here the treatment of the dancer as symbol is one that consciously argues against the subordination of the corporeal to the cerebral, and, instead of writing out the dancer’s human agency, it gestures toward the integration of her/his individuality with her/his art. Read in the context of The Tower (1928), “Among School Children” spells out an affirmative statement about the body that contrasts with the rejection of human flesh in “Sailing to Byzantium,” the caricatured physique of the old poet in “The Tower,” and the raped female body in “Leda and the Swan.” The body in “Among School Children” is not to be bruised or cast away in exchange for cold artifice or superhuman 1 knowledge; it is in itself the embodiment of art and wisdom. Does Yeats imply that to obtain unison between the body and soul, dance should be part of the curriculum? Maybe he was thinking along these lines even years before “Among School Children” was written. In his 1906 essay “Discoveries,” the poet prescribes voice and dance lessons for a girl with “a shrill monotonous voice and an abrupt way of moving”: She is fresh from school, where they have taught her history and geography whereby ‘a soul can be discerned,’ but what is the value of an education, or even in the long run of a science, that does not begin with the personality, the habitual self, and illustrate all by that? Somebody should have taught her to speak for the most part on whatever her voice is most musical . and have taught her after this some beautiful pantomimic dance, till it had grown a habit to live for eye and ear. A wise theatre might make a training in strong and beautiful life and fashion, teaching before all else the heroic discipline of the looking-glass, for is not beauty, even as lasting love, one of the most difficult of the arts? (E&I 269-70) While Yeats may seem sexist in telling the young woman to live for eye and ear, his “heroic discipline of the looking-glass” is applied to both women and men, and his main concern resides in how education of the body can help shape one’s personality and how such training can strengthen an actor’s performance. Where the dancing body and images of woman are concerned, the debates among feminists are usually heated. It is especially so when they involve a male author like Yeats whose gender politics have been subject to early criticism and attack as well as to recent reconsideration and acknowledgement of their complexity.1 Yeats’s ideas of gender are played out, if not further complicated, in his use of dance emblems. 1 A recent example can be found in Elizabeth Butler Cullingford’s Gender and History in Yeats’s Love Poetry (1996), which provides a feminist-historicist account of Yeats’s often-contradictory gender politics in love poetry and real life relationships with women.