Copyright by Michael Owen Hironymous 2007 The Dissertation Committee for Michael Owen Hironymous certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Santa María Ixcatlan, Oaxaca: From Colonial Cacicazgo to Modern Municipio Committee: Julia E. Guernsey, Supervisor Frank K. Reilly, III, Co-Supervisor Brian M. Stross David S. Stuart John M. D. Pohl Santa María Ixcatlan, Oaxaca: From Colonial Cacicazgo to Modern Municipio by Michael Owen Hironymous, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2007 Dedication Al pueblo de Santa Maria Ixcatlan. Acknowledgements This dissertation project has benefited from the kind and generous assistance of many individuals. I would like to express my gratitude to the people of Santa María Ixcatlan for their warm reception and continued friendship. The families of Jovito Jímenez and Magdaleno Guzmán graciously welcomed me into their homes during my visits in the community and provided for my needs. I would also like to recognize Gonzalo Guzmán, Isabel Valdivia, and Gilberto Gil, who shared their memories and stories of years past. The successful completion of this dissertation is due to the encouragement and patience of those who served on my committee. I owe a debt of gratitude to Nancy Troike, who introduced me to Oaxaca, and Linda Schele, who allowed me to pursue my interests. I appreciate the financial support that was extended by the Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies of the University of Texas and FAMSI. Their research grants funded the research conducted during 1995 and 1997. The most valuable contribution has come in the untiring support and assistance of my wife, Ellen, and our children. They accompanied me on numerous trips to Ixcatlan and endured, with me, the writing process. Santa María Ixcatlan, Oaxaca: From Colonial Cacicazgo to Modern Municipio Publication No._____________ Michael Owen Hironymous, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2007 Supervisors: Julia E. Guernsey Frank K. Reilly, III Isolated in the mountains of the Mixteca Alta in Oaxaca, Santa María Ixcatlan is the last surviving settlement of the Ixcatec-speaking people. Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, Ixcatlan was a native señorio whose nobility ruled numerous communities and controlled the land and its resources. This dissertation offers an examination of the ethnohistory and historical geography of the region, including the significant maps that have been produced throughout the centuries. Information was gathered from various archival repositories and field work conducted in Ixcatlan. Some observations are made about the archaeological remains located within the municipio. The study examines the forces that shape the Ixcatec cacicazgo after the conquest of New Spain and the establishment of colonial authority. It traces the historical holdings of the community through Mexican independence and the liberal reforms of the nineteenth century. The effects of the revolution of 1910 and the agrarian reform movement that followed are considered as well. Special attention is given to the vi contentions and conflicts that have developed between Ixcatlan and its neighbors in the twentieth century. vii Table of Contents List of Figures........................................................................................................ ix Chapter 1: Introduction...........................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Archaeology and Prehistory................................................................33 Chapter 3: Spanish Encomienda and Native Cacicazgo.......................................58 Chapter 4: The Historical Geography of Colonial Ixcatlan..................................65 Chapter 5: Ixcatlan and the Ley Lerdo..................................................................93 Chapter 6: Ixcatlan and Agrarian Reform...........................................................105 Chapter 7: Conclusion.........................................................................................122 Appendix A..........................................................................................................126 Appendix B ..........................................................................................................136 Figures..................................................................................................................149 Bibliography ........................................................................................................219 Vita .....................................................................................................................231 viii List of Figures Figure 1. Road map of Northern Oaxaca....................................................................... 151 Figure 2. Topographic map of Ixcatlan with additional toponyms by the author.......... 152 Figure 3. View of Santa María Ixcatlan with El Mirador and Cerro Flor in the background.................................................................................................... 153 Figure 4. View west towards Guautla and Nodón. ........................................................ 154 Figure 5. Meadow at La Cumbre in the highlands of Ixcatlan. ..................................... 155 Figure 6. View from Montañita to the Río Xuquila....................................................... 156 Figure 7. Stree plan of Santa María Ixcatlan. (INEGI).................................................. 157 Figure 8. The middle street of Ixcatlan as seen from the plaza. .................................... 158 Figure 9. The church of Santa María Ixcatlan. .............................................................. 159 Figure 10. A view through town.................................................................................... 160 Figure 11. The plaza of Santa María Ixcatlan................................................................ 161 Figure 12. The market during Cuarto Viernes............................................................... 162 Figure 13. The procession of El Señor de las Tres Caídas on Cuarto Viernes.............. 163 Figure 14. El Señor de las Tres Caídas.......................................................................... 164 Figure 15. San Ramón on Palm Sunday. ....................................................................... 165 Figure 16, The Virgin of Sorrows on Good Friday. ...................................................... 166 Figure 17. Todos Santos in Santa María Ixcatlan.......................................................... 167 Figure 18. The evening of Todos Santos. ...................................................................... 168 Figure 19. The native palm used in weaving. ................................................................ 169 Figure 20. Woman weaving palm hat............................................................................ 170 Figure 21. The lake at La Cumbre. ................................................................................ 171 Figure 22. The spring at Ma Paso. ................................................................................. 172 Figure 23. Archaeological sites along the Río Xuquila. (After Woodbury and Neely, 1972).............................................................. 173 Figure 24. A cross channel dam..................................................................................... 174 Figure 25. Section of a cross channel dam. ................................................................... 175 Figure 26. Terraces in the vicinity of El Palmar............................................................ 176 ix Figure 27. Loma de los Muertos from Culebrón. .......................................................... 177 Figure 28. Loma de los Muertos from Mal Paso. .......................................................... 178 Figure 29. Pyramid structure on Loma de los Muertos. ................................................ 179 Figure 30. Front view of a pyramid on Loma de los Muertos. ...................................... 180 Figure 31. Pictographs below Loma de los Muertos. .................................................... 181 Figure 32. Pictograph at cave below Loma de los Muertos........................................... 182 Figure 33. Pyramid at La Muralla.................................................................................. 183 Figure 34. Wall of the ceremonial precinct at La Muralla............................................. 184 Figure 35. Figures of a flint knif and heart from La Muralla. ....................................... 185 Figure 36. Figures of hand and skull at La Muralla....................................................... 186 Figure 37. Murals at Ocotololco, Tlaxcala. (After Contreras, 1993)............................. 187 Figure 38. Painted murals at Tizatlan, Tlaxcala. (After Noguera, 1929)....................... 188 Figure 39. Coatlicue with a necklace of hands, hearts and skulls.................................. 189 Figure 40. Tzitzimine from athe Codex Magliabechiano. ............................................. 190 Figure 41. Polychrome vase in the Museo Nacional de Antropología. ......................... 191 Figure 42. Relación geográfica de Ixcatlan, Map A. (JGI XXIV-7) ............................. 192 Figure 43. Close up of