ADULT EDUCATION IN CIVIL WAR RICHMOND JANUARY 1861-APRIL 1865 JOHN L. DWYER Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Adult and Continuing Education Harold W. Stubblefield, Chair Alan W. Beck Thomas C. Hunt Ronald L. McKeen Albert K. Wiswell March 19, 1997 Falls Church, Virginia Keywords: Adult Education. Richmond. Civil War Copyright 1997. John L. Dwyer ADULT EDUCATION IN CIVIL WAR RICHMOND January 1861-April 1865 by John L. Dwyer Committee Chairperson: Harold W. Stubblefield Adult and Continuing Education (ABSTRACT) This study examines adult education in Civil War Richmond from January 1861 to April 1865. Drawing on a range of sources (including newspapers, magazines, letters and diaries, reports, school catalogs, and published and unpublished personal narratives), it explores the types and availability of adult education activities and the impact that these activities had on influencing the mind, emotions, and attitudes of the residents. The analysis reveals that for four years, Richmond, the Capital of the Confederacy, endured severe hardships and tragedies of war: overcrowdedness, disease, wounded and sick soldiers, food shortages, high inflationary rates, crime, sanitation deficiencies, and weakened socio-educational institutions. Despite these deplorable conditions, the examination reveals that educative systems of organizations, groups, and individuals offered the opportunity and means for personal development and growth. The study presents and tracks the educational activities of organizations like churches, amusement centers, colleges, evening schools, military, and voluntary groups to determine the type and theme of their activities for educational purposes, such as personal development, leisure, and recreation. The study examines and tracks such activities as higher education, industrial training, religious education, college-preparatory education, military training, informal education, and educational leisure and recreation, such as reading and listening to and singing music. The study concludes that wartime conditions had minimal affect on the type and availability of adult education. Based on the number and types of educational activities and participants engaged in such activities, the study concludes that adult education had influenced and contributed to the lives of the majority of Richmonders, including the thousands of soldiers convalescing in the city's hospitals. Whatever the educative system, the study finds that the people of Richmond, under tremendous stress and despondency improved themselves individually and collectively. Thus, Civil War Richmond's adult education experience is about educative systems that gave people knowledge, comfort, and hope under extreme deprivation and deplorable conditions. For Charlotte wife, mother, advisor, mentor, and best friend iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank the following individuals for their help in this study. Harold Stubblefield, my chair, advisor, teacher, mentor, and friend, who believed and supported this study from the beginning and guided me through it. Tom Hunt, who narrowed the focus of the study to Richmond, supported it, and served as my research advisor. Ron McKeen, a quintessential adult educator who modeled what he taught and provided me encouragement to do this study. Bert Wiswell, teacher and advisor who provided invaluable suggestions on categorization and format. Al Beck, colleague and long-time friend who provided me encouragement and support. The reference librarians and staffs of the Virginia State Library and Archives, Virginia Historical Society, Library of Congress, and Museum of the Confederacy. Special thanks to Diane B. Jacob, Archivist, Preston Library, Virginia Military Institute; Jodi L. Koste, Archivist, Tompkins-McCaw Library, Virginia Commonwealth University; Darlene Slater, Research Assistant, Virginia Baptist Historical Society, University of Richmond; Mary Ellen Tipper and Jane Cohen, Staff Librarians, Acker Library, Defense Systems Management College; Shannon Walter-Saville, K. C. Villahermosa, and Carlos Galvan, Defense Systems Management College; Wilbur Jones, historian par excellence, author, and friend, who provided invaluable advice and encouragement; and Chris Hardy, former colleague and friend, who encouraged me to enroll in the Adult and Continuing Education Program and provided advice, support, and encouragement throughout the program. My late father, Roy F. Dwyer, Sr., who inspired me with his love of history. My wife and best friend, Charlotte, who provided her love and support; my son, Michael, and his wife Georgette and their daughter and my granddaughter, Megan, and my daughter, Melanie, all provided encouragement and support and let me know how proud they were. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract........................................................................................................................................ ii Dedication.....................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgments.........................................................................................................................iv Chapter I - Introduction ................................................................................................................1 Background of Problem.....................................................................................................2 Its People and Industry...........................................................................................3 The Newspapers.....................................................................................................3 The Churches and Synagogues ...............................................................................4 Public, Private, and Higher Education ....................................................................4 Educational Leisure Organizations and Activities...................................................6 Statement of Problem ........................................................................................................9 Purpose of Study ...............................................................................................................9 Research Questions............................................................................................................9 Significance of Study .........................................................................................................10 Definition of Term .............................................................................................................10 Method..............................................................................................................................10 Research Design.....................................................................................................11 Sources of Data .....................................................................................................11 Collection of Data..................................................................................................13 Analysis of Data.....................................................................................................13 Organization of Study........................................................................................................14 Chapter II - Education, Gaiety, and Miseries -1861 .......................................................................16 January 1861 to May 1861.................................................................................................16 Informal Education--Newspapers and Books..........................................................16 Educational Leisure and Recreation........................................................................17 Military Training ....................................................................................................17 Higher Education ...................................................................................................18 Politics and the People ...........................................................................................19 Summary: January 1861 to May 1861 ...................................................................21 May 1861 to October 1861................................................................................................22 Educational Leisure and Recreation........................................................................22 Military Training, Women, and Patriotic Pride........................................................24 Religious Education ...............................................................................................28 Newspapers--Patriotic Appeals and Themes ...........................................................29 v Educational Activities--A Mid-Year Assessment and Summary ..............................30 Informal and Leisure Education..............................................................................31 Religious Education ...............................................................................................33 Industrial Training..................................................................................................34 Summary: May 1861 to October 1861...................................................................34 October 1861-December