A Critical Ethnography of Dispossession, Indigenous Sovereignty and Knowledge Production in Resistance in Samoa by Naomi Gordon A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education in Theoretical, Cultural and International Studies in Education Department of Educational Policy Studies University of Alberta © Naomi Gordon, 2017 ABSTRACT Samoa’s independence in 1962 came with high expectations for sovereignty and freedom from colonial domination. The continued struggle against material and social dispossession during fifty-four years of independence, however, suggests that the tentacles of colonialism are hard to dislodge. Against the backdrop of neoliberal globalization (contemporary capitalism), structural reforms target Samoa’s financial and agricultural sectors with a sole emphasis on promoting the economic use of customary land. The current project of colonial capital moves to privatize and commodify customary land tenure, which for many matai (chief) threatens alienation of customary land and has deep implications for fa’aSamoa (Samoan way) and fa’amatai (political system of matai). These intrusions have been contested by matai in and through spaces of learning and social action, reindigenizing fa’aSamoa and fa’amatai to rearticulate power relations and engage in struggles to protect customary land and Samoa’s sovereignty. The primary purpose of this research was to critically examine the continuities and the mechanisms of accumulation by dispossession (ABD) or the colonial capitalist infiltration of Samoa’s political economy and traditional governance systems and ways of life. The study also sought to elaborate on modes of traditional organization, resistance, and learning in social action or the struggle for control of customary land, labour, food production, and political sovereignty in Samoa. A critical ethnography, informed by an anticolonial and Marxist analytic, guided the analysis of colonial capitalist domination and attempted disarticulations of Samoan ways of knowing and doing, including the spaces of learning in struggle and social action to re- indigenize fa’aSamoa and fa’amatai. ii PREFACE This thesis is an original work by Naomi Gordon. The research project, of which this thesis is a part, received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board, Project Name “Food Sovereignty as Agrarian Resistance in Samoa”, No. 00050488, September 12, 2014. From this thesis, abridged sections from Chapter Two and Three and paraphrased findings from Chapter Four and Five have been published as Gordon, N. (2017). Sovereignty Politics in Samoa: Fa’aSamoa, Fa’amatai and Resistance to Colonial Capital and Dispossession of Land and Place. In D. Kapoor (Eds.), Against Colonization and Rural Dispossession: Local Resistance in South & East Asia, the Pacific and Africa. London, UK: Zed Books. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Those who stand against injustice, those who have shared their courage, histories and experiences, and those who have helped and supported me in this journey have made the writing of this thesis possible. Without the perseverance, faith, and encouragement of my supervisor, Dr. Dip Kapoor, I would not have been able to imagine, realize, and complete my Master’s thesis. His ability to inspire me to challenge hegemonic thinking, uncover and disrupt power relations and to move beyond theory into action has permeated all aspects of my life. I am eternally grateful for his patience and commitment to seeing me through this journey. I also wish to express my gratitude to everyone in Samoa who shared with me their knowledges, their frustrations, and their hope; who welcomed me, laughed with me, shared food with me and inspired me to understand the many experiences and perspectives ruminating in current day Samoa. To Ken, Sapa, Afamasaga, Le Tangaloa, I am forever grateful for the sharing of your knowledge and passion. To Fiu, I thank you for your guidance, your candor, and your commitment to protecting the land, the air, the water, the va of Samoa. You have inspired me to be an agent of change. Thank you to Lily and all my friends for your continuous support. To my mom and grandma, your encouragement and support throughout this process and throughout my life is beyond my ability to articulate gratitude. You have helped shape my character, my beliefs, and my convictions, I am infinitely grateful. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 Background to the Study ............................................................................................................................... 1 Statement of Purpose and Research Questions ............................................................................................. 6 Significance of the Research ......................................................................................................................... 7 Research Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 8 Limitations and Delimitations of Research ................................................................................................... 9 Mapping out the Thesis ............................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER TWO: HISTORY OF DISPOSSESSION, COLONIALISM AND INDIGENOUS SOVEREIGNTY......................................................................................................................................... 12 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 12 Pre-independence Samoa ............................................................................................................................ 16 Post-independence Samoa .......................................................................................................................... 32 Fa’aSamoa and Fa’amatai .......................................................................................................................... 38 Colonialism and Neoliberal Globalization .................................................................................................. 42 Sovereignty, Resistance and Learning ........................................................................................................ 46 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER THREE: CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY ................................................................................. 50 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 51 Critical Ethnography ................................................................................................................................... 53 Towards an anticolonial and Marxist Analysis ........................................................................................... 57 The Research Journey ................................................................................................................................. 62 Positionality and the locus of enunciation .................................................................................................. 64 Research Site: Apia, Samoa ........................................................................................................................ 67 Gaining Access: Strategies to recruit participants ...................................................................................... 67 Research Participants .................................................................................................................................. 69 Methods: Data Collection ........................................................................................................................... 72 Field notes: Participant observation ...................................................................................................... 72 Interviews ................................................................................................................................................ 73 v Documents............................................................................................................................................... 75 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 79 Trustworthiness ........................................................................................................................................... 81 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 82 CHAPTER FOUR: TERRAINS OF DISPOSSESSION ............................................................................ 83 Repudiation of Fa’aSamoa and Fa’amatai ................................................................................................. 84 Cooptations ............................................................................................................................................