Old and New Islam in Greece Studies in International Minority and Group Rights Series Editors Gudmundur Alfredsson Kristin Henrard Advisory Board Han Entzinger, Professor of Migration and Integration Studies (Sociology), Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Baladas Ghoshal, Jawaharlal Nehru University (Peace and Confl ict Studies, South and Southeast Asian Studies), New Delhi, India; Michelo Hansungule, Professor of Human Rights Law, University of Pretoria, South Africa; Baogang He, Professor in International Studies (Politics and International Studies), Deakin University, Australia; Joost Herman, Director Network on Humani tarian Assistance the Netherlands, the Netherlands; Will Kymlicka, Professor of Political Philosophy, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada; Ranabir Samaddar, Director, Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group Kolkata, India; Prakash Shah, Senior Lecturer in Law (Legal Pluralism), Queen Mary, University of London, the United Kingdom; Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, Guest Researcher at the Department of Languages and Culture, University of Roskilde, Denmark; Siep Stuurman, Professor of History, Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Stefan Wolfff, Professor in Security Studies, University of Birmingham, the United Kingdom. VOLUME 5 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.nl/imgr Old and New Islam in Greece From Historical Minorities to Immigrant Newcomers By Konstantinos Tsitselikis LEIDEN • BOSTON 2012 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tsitselikis, Konstantinos. Old and new Islam in Greece : from historical minorities to immigrant newcomers / by Konstantinos Tsitselikis. p. cm. -- (Studies in international minority and group rights ; v. 5) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-22152-9 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Muslims--Legal status, laws, etc.--Greece. 2. Minorities--Legal status, laws, etc.--Greece. 3. Emigration and immigration law--Greece. I. Title. KKE2467.M56T75 2012 342.49508’52--dc23 2012010110 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual "Brill" typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.nl/brill-typeface. ISSN 2210-2132 ISBN 978 90 04 22152 9 (hardback) ISBN 978 90 04 22153 6 (e-book) Copyright 2012 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhofff Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. For Meriç, Zoi, and Daniel CONTENTS Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xiii Note on the Use of Names .....................................................................................xv Commonly Used Terms (As Perceived in the Greek Context) ..................xvii Foreword ...................................................................................................................xix Acknowledgements ................................................................................................xxi 1. Introduction: Theoretical and Methodological Concerns .........................1 1.1. Minority Protection under Conventional International Law .........4 1.2. Law and National Ideology in Greece: Filtering International Commitments ....................................................................7 1.3. Methodological Issues ..............................................................................11 1.4. Semantic and Qualitative Uncertainties .............................................13 1.5. Target Groups ..............................................................................................18 1.6. The Structure of the Book ........................................................................21 PART I THE LEGACY: NATIONAL LAW AND INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS UNDER THE WEIGHT OF HISTORY Introduction to Part I ..............................................................................................26 2. Muslim Minorities in the Balkans in the Era of Nationalism ....................................................................................................27 2.1. 1830–1912: The First ‘Short’ Century for Greece… .............................30 2.1.1. After the Revolution .......................................................................31 2.1.2. The Convention of Constantinople (1881) ..............................34 2.2. …and the Cretan Autonomous State ...................................................36 2.2.1. Muslim Community Structures .................................................39 2.2.2. Cretan Muslims: Between Millet and Minority Protection ........................................................................................43 3. 1913–1922: A Decade of Ethno-Religious Co-Existence ............................47 3.1. Nationalization/Ethnicization of Land and People and Minority Protection at the Beginning of the 20th Century ...........47 3.2. The Greek State and the Muslims: First Contact, First Reaction .......................................................................................................52 viii contents 3.3. The Convention of Athens (1913) ..........................................................60 3.4. Territorial Applicability of the Status of Protection ........................62 4. 1923–1947: Exchanging Populations and the Aftermath ..........................67 4.1. The Convention of Lausanne (January 1923) ....................................68 4.1.1. Who Was Exchanged? ..................................................................69 4.1.2. Exceptions .......................................................................................72 4.1.3. A Final Appraisal ...........................................................................79 4.2. The New Legal Regime under the Sèvres and Lausanne Treaties (July 1923) .....................................................................................81 4.3. Territorial Applicability of the Status of Protection (1924–1946) .................................................................................................82 PART II STATUS: ETHNIC REALITIES UNDER NORMATIVE NEGOTIATION Introduction to Part II ............................................................................................88 5. Islam under Greek Law: The Content of Rights .........................................89 5.1. Freedom of Religion: General Aspects of Applicability for Muslims .................................................................................................89 5.2. The Muslims as a Minority: The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) ..........97 5.2.1. Ratione Loci Implementation .....................................................98 5.2.2. Ratione Personae Implementation ..........................................100 5.2.3. Reciprocity: A Century of Misunderstandings .................... 105 6. The Muslim Minority as a Legal Entity: An Ottoman Legacy ...............119 6.1. Community Structures ..........................................................................120 6.2. From Marginalization and Discrimination to the Doctrine of ‘Isonomia-Isopoliteia’ (Equality before the Law-Equality of Rights) ..........................................................................130 7. Unbending Identities, Invisible Diversities .............................................. 139 7.1. Minority Muslims ....................................................................................140 7.1.1. The Existence of Minorities…is a Question of Law ............140 7.1.2. The Identity Issue in Thrace: ‘(Un)equal and Diffferent’ ........................................................................................ 145 7.1.3. Ethnic Engineering of Pomaks and Gypsies/Romas .......... 147 7.2. Immigrant Muslims ................................................................................158 contents ix 8. Internationalizing a Domestic Afffair while Endorsing Human Rights ................................................................................................... 167 8.1. Turkey as Kin-State: The Red Thin Line with Political Interference ...............................................................................................170 8.2. The Greek Administration Vis-à-Vis the Minority: Carrot and Stick ........................................................................................175 8.3. Diplomatic Bilateral Rapprochement ............................................... 180 8.4. The ‘Europeanization’ Factor ...............................................................184 8.5. Immigrant Muslims as a Bilateral Issue ............................................ 187 9. Right to Citizenship ..........................................................................................191 9.1. Loyalty to the Nation, Devotion to the State ..................................