THE BATTLE OF ADWA THE BATTLE OF ADWA REFLECTIONS ON ETHIOPIA’S HISTORIC VICTORY AGAINST EUROPEAN COLONIALISM Edited by Paulos Milkias & Getachew Metaferia Contributors Richard Pankhurst Zewde Gabra-Selassie Negussay Ayele Harold Marcus Theodore M. Vestal Paulos Milkias Getachew Metaferia Maimire Mennasemay Mesfin Araya Algora Publishing New York © 2005 by Algora Publishing All Rights Reserved www.algora.com No portion of this book (beyond what is permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the United States Copyright Act of 1976) may be reproduced by any process, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, without the express written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 0-87586-413-9 (softcover) ISBN: 0-87586-414-7 (hardcover) ISBN: 0-87586-415-5 (ebook) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data — The Battle of Adwa: reflections on Ethiopia’s historic victory against European colonialism / edited by Paulos Milkias, Getachew Metaferia. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-87586-413-9 (trade paper: alk. paper) — ISBN 0-87586-414-7 (hard cover: alk. paper) — ISBN 0-87586-415-5 (ebook) 1. Adwa, Battle of, Adwa, Ethiopia, 1896. I. Milkias, Paulos. II. Metaferia, Getachew. DT387.3.B39 2005 963'.043—dc22 2005013845 Front Cover: Printed in the United States This book is dedicated to all peoples of the world who have stood up to colonial subjugation and courageously sacrificed their lives for the love of freedom and liberty ETHIOPIAN TITLES Afe-Nigus — (“Mouthpiece of the Emperor”) equivalent to the U.S. “Chief Justice.” Asiraleqa — (“Commander of 10”) Corporal, as a military title. Atse — Emperor. BalambaRas — (“Commander of the Citadel”) Commander, as a military title, and “Chevalier” as a civilian title. Bejrond — An official responsible for state finance; equivalent to the British “Chancellor of the Exchequer” or the U.S. “Treasury Secretary.” Bitwoded — (“Beloved by the king”) the highest non-royal title, ranks after “Ras” in precedence. Dejazmach — (“Field commander”) field commander, as a military title and “Earl” as a civilian title. This is just below “Bitwoded.” Fitawrarri — (“Commander of the Vanguard”) As a military title, this is equivalent to “Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces” and in rank it is equivalent to “Ras.” However, as a civilian title, it is equivalent to the British “Count” and is just next in importance to “Dejazmach.” Grazmatch — (“Commander of the Left Flank”) A military title, equivalent to “Baron” as a civilian title, it follows “Kegnazmach” in importance. Hamsaleqa — (“Commander of 50”) Sergeant, as a military title. Itege — Empress. Kegnazmach — (“Commander of the Right Flank”) A military title; “Marquess” as a civilian title, ranking next to “Fitawurari.” Leul — Prince. Lielt — Princess. Lij — (“Child”) This title is reserved only for children of the nobility. For example, the Ethiopian Emperor preceding Haile Selassie (Iyasu) is historically referred to as “Lij Iyasu,” because he was never crowned as “King of Kings.” xi The Battle of Adwa Merid-Azmach — Commander, in the military sense, but in recent times this title was used exclusively by the princes. For example, Emperor Haile Selassie’s eldest son Prince Asfa Wossen, who was the crown prince, was referred to as “Merid Azmach Asfa Wossen.” Mesfina — “Duke of…” As, for example, the title of Haile Selassie's second son, Prince Makonnen, who was referred to as “Mesfina Harar Makonnen” (meaning “Makonnen, Prince of Harar”) Metoaleqa — (“Commander of 100”) This is equivalent to the military title of “Lieutenant.” Nigist — Queen Nigus — King Niguse Negest — King of Kings Ras — (“Head”) Equivalent to the British “Duke” Shaleqa — (“Commander of 1000”) A military title is equivalent to “Major.” Shambel — A military title equivalent to “Captain.” Woizero — Traditionally, this referred to an aristocratic lady; now, it is equivalent to Mrs. xii TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE 1 SUMMARY 3 INTRODUCTION 5 PROLOGUE 15 CHAPTER 1. REFLECTIONS ON THE BATTLE OF ADWA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR TODAY 21 PRELUDE TO THE BATTLE 22 THE BATTLE OF ADWA 27 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BATTLE 31 LESSONS FROM THE BATTLE 33 CHAPTER 2. THE BATTLE OF ADWA: THE HISTORIC VICTORY OF ETHIOPIA OVER EUROPEAN COLONIALISM 37 THE RISORGIMENTO AND THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 37 THE WUCHALÉ DOUBLECROSS 43 CRISPI’S CALL FOR WAR 50 THE ITALIANS OCCUPY STRATEGIC POSITIONS FOR ATTACK 52 THE ETHIOPIAN FIGHTERS TAKE THEIR POSITION FOR DEFENSE 53 THE OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THE ETHIOPIAN FORMATION 54 ARMAMENT 55 BEGINNING AND END OF BATTLE 57 THE SCENE AFTER THE VICTORY 62 THE ROUT 63 REPERCUSSIONS IN ITALY 64 THE LESSONS OF ADWA 65 Magnanimity 65 The Pitfalls of Division 67 The Virtues of Unity 74 Vigilance 76 “Applied” Nationalities 77 The Peasantry 78 More on the Eritrean Factor 78 The Anonymous Ethiopian 80 xiii The Battle of Adwa The Role of Women 80 Valor 84 ADWA AND ITS INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION 86 CHAPTER 3. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY IN MENELIK’S FOREIGN POLICY 89 CHAPTER 4. ADWA 1896: WHO WAS CIVILIZED AND WHO WAS SAVAGE? 133 A PROFILE OF COLONIAL EXPANSION IN AFRICA 133 STRUGGLES IN THE HORN AND THE MAKING OF THE ADWA CONFRONTATION 137 THE WUCHALÉ TREATY AND ITS AFTERMATH IN PERSPECTIVE 143 The Wuchalé Treaty Provisions 144 Italy’s Chicanery 147 HUMANITY (SEB’AWINNET) AND CIVILITY AT ADWA AND THEREAFTER 164 ETHIOPIA’S MAGNANIMITY TOWARDS THE ITALIAN FOE 172 WAX AND GOLD, AND LESSONS OF ADWA 174 CHAPTER 5. ETHIOPIA: A BULWARK AGAINST EUROPEAN COLONIALISM AND ITS ROLE IN THE PAN-AFRICAN MOVEMENT 181 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ADWA 181 Emperor Menelik and the Battle of Adwa 182 The Introduction of Modern Administration and Military Build-up 183 Italian Strategies and a Prelude to Adwa 185 The Battle of Adwa 187 The Ethiopian Connection to the Pan-African Movement 190 The Philosophy of Ethiopia and Ethiopianism in the Pan-African Movement 192 Ethiopia’s Preoccupation with Development, Political Independence and National Survival 197 THE IMPLICATIONS OF ADWA TO THE DIASPORA AFRICANS 201 Ethiopia and Blacks of the diaspora 203 Cold War Era 205 Ethiopian Invasion by Fascist Italy and the Solidarity of Blacks in the diaspora 205 Post World War II Ethiopia and Its Role in the Pan-African Movement 209 THE PROSPECT OF ETHIOPIANISM AND CURRENT CONDITIONS OF ETHIOPIA 211 CHAPTER 6. BRITISH REACTIONS TO THE BATTLE OF ADWA: AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE TIMES OF LONDON FOR 1896 217 EUROPEAN THINKING PRIOR TO THE BATTLE 217 REACTIONS TO THE BATTLE 218 A CLOSE WATCH ON THE RUSSIANS 224 THE ITALIAN GREEN BOOK 226 CHAPTER 7. RACIST DISCOURSE ABOUT ETHIOPIA AND ETHIOPIANS BEFORE AND AFTER THE BATTLE OF ADWA 229 CHAPTER 8. CONTEMPORARY ETHIOPIA IN THE CONTEXT OF THE BATTLE OF ADWA, 1896 239 ADWA AS A HISTORY OF A PEOPLE 241 ADWA AS A HISTORY OF A RULING CLASS 242 POST-ADWA 245 CHAPTER 9. ETHIOPIAN HISTORY AND CRITICAL THEORY: THE CASE OF ADWA 253 RETHINKING ADWA 253 The Absence of an “Intellectual Adwa” 255 xiv Table of Contents The Primacy of the Internal Aspect of Adwa 256 Adwa, Collective Memory and Emancipation 259 The Struggle for Collective Memory 261 THE NEED FOR CRITICAL THEORY 264 The Lack of Internal Understanding 264 THE POVERTY OF THE “COLONIAL THESIS” 270 The Ptolemaic method of the colonial thesis 271 A Counter-Evidence to the Colonial Thesis 274 Ethiopia as a “Tabula Rasa” 276 “REGIONS,” OR READING ETHIOPIA FROM WITHIN 280 CONCEPTUALIZING THE ETHIOPIAN PEOPLE 283 ADWA: THE UNFINISHED BATTLE 285 A PRELIMINARY CRITIQUE OF “ADWA THE UNFINISHED BATTLE” 288 Adwa and the Quest for Freedom and Equality 289 Adwa and the Quest for National Unity 291 Adwa, Anamnestic Solidarity, and Democracy 294 ETHIOPIAN DEMOCRACY AND CRITICAL THEORY 298 “Immaturity” as an Obstacle to Democracy 299 Facing the Dark Side of History 299 CONCLUSION: FROM ADWA TO DEMOCRACY IN THE THIRD WORLD 300 APPENDIX: AMHARIC VERSION OF THE WUCHALÉ TREATY 303 CONTRIBUTORS 309 BIBLIOGRAPHY 313 INDEX 317 xv PREFACE The Scramble in which the Europeans of the 19th century willfully subdi- vided Africa among themselves has not allowed the continent to follow its own natural course of cultural and political evolution. However, the speed of European conquest, the depth of its penetration and the magnitude of its control were not always dictated by the outsiders who were vying to exploit its resources. Through resistance, dramatically symbolized by the Battle of Adwa, Africa has also affected the politics of Europe and North America. This book is a starting point to reflect on that neglected fact. Africa was not simply a “dark continent” out there to be colonized, nor was it simply a necessary link in the inhuman triangular trade, with slavery at one end. It was — and is — also a land of defiance, victory, and pride. Our thanks to the many who share our view in this regard and who have encouraged us to publish this book. 1 SUMMARY The Adwa victory over European imperialism is an important event in the shared memory of the entire African population. Indeed, it is the only secular episode in the whole history of Africa that has been celebrated for more than a century with unabated popular enthusiasm. A phenomenon such as Adwa is a complex nexus of various historical pro- cesses with wide-ranging but as yet not fully explored meanings. The contrib- utors to this collection show that Adwa not only reflects its time but transcends it, and that the aspirations and meanings that flow from it have been a powerful constitutive force in the rise and evolution of modern Africa. Indeed, it is an event that awakened the hope for emancipation and fired the struggle against colonialism and racism among Africans in the colonies and in the diaspora. In an effort to elucidate the diverse implications of this unique victory over colonialism, the texts assembled here analyze Adwa from various perspectives — diplomatic, historical, normative, cultural, political, and theoretical — and consider critically the event’s significance to the understanding and the reso- lution of the grave problems that confront contemporary Africa.