Close Encounters with the First Kind: What does Development mean in the Context of Two Bushman Communities in Ngwatle and the Northern Cape? Lauren Dyll Submitted in partial fulfilment of the Master of Arts Degree, Graduate Programme in Culture, Communication and Media Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa 2004 Declaration I, Lauren Dyll (student number 981201194) declare that this thesis is my own original work and that where use has been made of the work of others, it has been duly acknowledged in the text. It is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the Master of Arts Degree in the Graduate Programme in Culture, Communication and Media Studies in the Faculty of Humanities, at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. It is submitted as 50% of the overall degree. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination, or to any other university. Signature: ……………………….. Date:……………. Table of Contents Declaration 1 Table of contents 2 Abstract 3 Acronyms 4 Acknowledgements 5 Preface 6 Chapter One: Close Encounters 8 Chapter Two: Faces of Development 28 Chapter Three: Development on the Ground in Ngwatle 63 Chapter Four: Development on the Ground in the Northern Cape 85 Chapter Five: Comparison of Case Studies 112 Conclusion 121 References 130 Appendix 145 Abstract The aim of this research is to investigate the interaction between the ‘beneficiaries’ of development - the Ngwatle Bushmen in southern Botswana and the Khomani Bushmen in the Northern Cape of South Africa, and the agents of development – local NGOs (Non Government Organisations) and Trusts, whose development programmes are influenced by broader state policy. The development programmes implemented by these organisations affect Bushman rights with regards to public participation in the development process, land, hunting and access to resources and benefits. In discussing these issues this study draws on James Murombedzi’s (2001) proposition that community based natural resource management (CBNRM) programmes that supposedly devolve the management of natural resources to the local population, may be an extension of greater state control over resources. It will investigate the impact of what Steven Robins (2002: 835) calls “double donor vision” on the lives of the Ngwatle and Khomani Bushmen. Donors and NGOs view Bushmen as “both ‘First Peoples’ and modern citizen-in-the-making” (Robins, 2001: 833). He argues that this dual mandate to “promote the ‘cultural survival’ of indigenous people and to socialise them into becoming virtuous modern citizens” (Robins, 2001: 842) contributes to intra-community divisions and conflicts. An overview of the issue of identity as discussed by Anthea Simoes (2001) who tested Stuart Hall’s (1990, 1996, 1997) two models of identity in both communities, is necessary here to frame the discussion of development as being affected by differences in identity construction. This research therefore seeks to discuss perspectives of the process of development communication and implementation in the two Bushman communities. What type of development occurs and how does this interaction shape perceptions of development amongst the Bushmen? Different development communication paradigms adopt communication strategies and implementation programmes that best suit their goals. The modernization and dependency/ dissociation development paradigms fail to offer mechanisms to facilitate negotiation, conflict resolution and community or individual empowerment (Servaes, 1999). The development support communication (DSC) paradigm and to a larger degree the ‘another development’ paradigm, in contrast, encourage local people to actively participate in the search for solutions to development problems as perceived and experienced by them (Ansah, 1992). This research aims to illustrate, however, that these different development paradigms exist alongside each other in the field – this adds to the ‘messiness’ of development in practice. The research frames the perceptions of and engagement with development via a comparative analysis of Ngwatle and the Northern Cape Bushman communities. Acronyms ANC African National Congress CBNRM Community Based Natural Resource Management CBO Community Based Organisation CCMS Culture Communication and Media Studies CHA Controlled Hunting Area CPA Community Property Association CRA Cultural Resource Audit CRM Cultural Resource Management CRAM Cultural Resource Auditing and Management DFID Department For International Development DSC Development Support Communication ECLA Economic Commission For Latin America IMF International Monetary Fund KDC Kgalagadi District Council KTP Kgalagadi Transfontier Park NGO Non Government Organisation NKXT Nqwaa Khobee Xeya Trust NWEO New World Economic Order NWIO New World Information Order NWICO New World Information and Communication Order RAD Remote Area Dweller RADP Remote Area Dweller Project RDC Rural District Council SANParks South African National Parks SASI South African San Institute SBB Safari Botswana Bound SWAPO South West African People's Organisation UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Communications Organisation UNWGIP United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations US United States WMA Wildlife Management Area WIMSA Working-group for Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa Acknowledgements I have been privileged in this research to be part of and contribute towards a wider project conducted by the Graduate Programme in Culture, Communication and Media Studies (CCMS) since 1994. This project is entitled, 'Observers and Observed. Reverse Cultural Studies, Auto- ethnographic, Semiotic and Reflexive Methodologies' headed by Professor Keyan Tomaselli. It has been sponsored by the Natal University Research Fund (URF). Thanks to the National Research Foundation: Social Sciences and Humanities (NRF) and to the University of Natal for scholarships to undertake this research. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and not necessarily attributed to the sponsoring parties. I would like to thank Mr and Mrs Burger at the Protea Hotel, Upington for their generous contribution to our accommodation on the way to and from the Kalahari. Thank you to Safari Botswana Bound and the Nqwaa Khobee Xeya Trust for their assistance in facilitating our work at Ngwatle, as well as the South African San Institute, particularly Meryl-Joy Wildschut for her help and taking the time to respond to my queries. Thanks are given to Keyan Tomaselli for providing me the opportunity to be involved in the project and to learn so much, as well as being an insightful supervisor. To Vanessa McLennan-Dodd for all her hard work for the broader project, her invaluable assistance in organising fieldtrips, and for always lending a helping hand. Mathew Durington, thank you for being a supportive and patient mentor. I value your encouragement, advice and friendship. I am also very grateful to Nelia Oets and Mary Lange for their expertise as interpreters during interviews. My fellow Kalahari travellers made this once in a lifetime experience even more memorable: Fiona Archer, Sara Ceci, Laura Durington, Mathew Durington, Michael Francis, Belinda Kruiper, Vetkat Kruiper, Mary Lange, Vanessa McLennan-Dodd, Giorgio Menchini, Silvano Motto, Gareth Mycklebust, Nelia Oets, Tim Reinhardt, Marit Saetre, Charlize Tomaselli and Keyan Tomaselli. I am indebted to Belinda and Vetkat Kruiper for their insightful conversations, gracious hospitality and friendship. I would also like to thank Anne and Alan Ross, and Nancy and George Forrest for their unfailing love and support. To Carla Dyll as my pillar of support and Gareth Mycklebust for going out of his way to illustrate my research and for believing in me. Thanks to Karl and May Dyll for their words of encouragement. Most importantly I thank the Khomani Bushmen of the Northern Cape and the Ngwatle Bushmen, without whom none of this would be possible. Thank you for you warm hospitality in allowing us into your lives and for sharing your knowledge with us. I particularly wish to thank Anna Festus, Gadi, Oom Hansie, Johannes, Jon-Jon, Rosa Koper, Kort Jan, Belinda Kruiper, Isak Kruiper, Toppies Kruiper, Vetkat Kruiper, Lys, Miriam Motshabise, Pedrus Motshabise, Abraham Meintjies, Vista-Jan, Silikat Van Wyk and Yuri. Preface This dissertation forms part of a broader research project 'Observers and Observed. Reverse Cultural Studies, Auto-ethnographic, Semiotic and Reflexive Methodologies' that is headed by Prof. Keyan Tomaselli of the Graduate Programme in Culture, Communication and Media Studies (CCMS) at the University of Natal (UND). Contributions to this project that have direct relevance to my research include Boloka (2001a/b), McLennan-Dodd (2003a/b), Dyll (2003a/b), Francis (2002), Simoes (2001), Tomaselli and Shepperson (2003a), Tomaselli (2003a/b, 2001, 1999) and Wang (2001). My participation in the ‘Observers and Observed’ project began on my first field trip to meet members of the Northern Cape and Ngwatle Bushman communities in July 2002. My interest in the subject of development was first piqued when I attended the Graduate CCMS course entitled Media, Democracy and Development. However, actually being in the Kalahari opened my eyes to the ambivalence of development agendas more so than any text could convey. I do not aim to speak on the community members’ behalf, but rather to offer my interpretation of the knowledge I have gained of their circumstances made possible through