CHAPTER 1 Sea Power and the Modern State System Sea Power played a major, often decisive, role in the Peloponnesian Wars with rival Sparta. Those wars wars that led to the rise and fall of ancient empires. decimated Greece and led to the region’s decline Once rivers and seas became avenues rather than at the same time that Rome was rising to power barriers to communication and commerce, con- in the central Mediterranean. Though best known fl ict followed in the form of rivalry between traders, for its infantry legions, it was the Roman navy that pirates who preyed on shipping, and governments that brought Rome victory over its rival Carthage in the formed navies to protect their own commerce and Punic Wars (264–146 bce ) by allowing Rome to iso- seize that of others. The latter gave rise to the fi rst late Carthage from its colonies, cut Hannibal’s army warships, most of which were galleys (i.e., long vessels, off from support from home when it invaded the propelled by oarsmen). Italian Peninsula, and, fi nally, to invade and defeat Carthage itself. Roman control of the Mediterra- nean facilitated commerce, including the grain trade Sea Power in the Ancient World vital to support of a city the size of Rome, and the Bronze‐Age Minoa (c. 2000–1420 bce ) was the fi rst movement of army legions to trouble spots in the thalassocracy (i.e., civilization dependent on the sea) empire. and the fi rst sea power. Located on the island of Crete Transition to the feudal system of medieval Europe at the nexus of trade routes between the Aegean, brought with it myriad small states—none, except Adriatic, and eastern Mediterranean Seas, Minoan Venice, large or wealthy enough to support a sig- civilization relied largely on coastal fortifi cations for nifi cant navy—and a decline in overseas commerce. defense until its conquest by Mycenaeans from main- When Vikings reached North America (c.1100) and land Greece (c. 1470–1420 bce ), who operated the established L’Anse aux Meadows on Newfoundland, western world’s fi rst navy. there was no political entity capable of sustaining the Sea power saved the Greek city‐states from Per- settlement and there were no ships with the capacity sian domination when an Athenian‐led fl otilla of to conduct transoceanic commerce. Four centuries galleys defeated the PersianCOPYRIGHTED navy at the Battle of later MATERIAL, when Columbus visited the West Indies, this Salamis (480 bce ) and destroyed the remainder of had changed. Poised on the brink of the modern era, their galleys at Mycale (479 bce ). Later during the Europe was developing the technology needed for same century Athens’ fl eet provided the city and its overseas trade and the political and economic institu- allies with their main defensive bulwark during the tions to maintain overseas empires. America, Sea Power, and the World, First Edition. Edited by James C. Bradford. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. c01 1 25 November 2015 12:43 PM 2 America, Sea Power, and the World The Modern World and the Great and Austria rose to prominence in central and eastern Power System Europe. The Thirty Years’ War swept Europe between The transition from the medieval to the modern 1618 and 1648. While virtually every nation was world was marked by technological advances in met- involved, the main fi ghting occurred in central allurgy, chemistry, and navigation, and by the replace- Europe, where it decimated populations and devas- ment of oar‐powered galleys by sailing ships of a tated large sections of land. Following its settlement much greater size that, by tacking, could sail against in the Treaty of Westphalia there emerged an endur- the wind. Equally important was the rise of nation ing Great Power System in which fi ve nation states— states—that is, political units (states) composed of a Russia, Austria, Prussia (Germany after 1870), France, common people (nations). These new unifi ed entities and England (Great Britain after 1707)—played could and often did support trade, establish overseas dominant roles. The goal was to maintain a “balance colonies, and construct navies. of power” that would prevent total wars such as the The fi rst nation states developed on the Ibe- Thirty Years’ War in the future. rian Peninsula; Portugal dates its emergence as a Though never formally enunciated in a sin- nation state from the reign of John I (1385–1433), gle document, fi ve core tenets underlay the Great who initiated European exploration of the Atlan- Power System: 1) fi ve is the correct number of tic coast of Africa, and Spain became a nation state powers to maintain a healthy balance; 2) no great following either the 1475 marriage of Ferdinand power should ever be destroyed or reduced to a of Aragon and Isabella of Castile or newly unifi ed position that prevented it from playing an inde- Spain’s expulsion of the Moors from the whole of pendent role in the system; 3) no single nation the peninsula except Gibraltar in 1492. That year should ever be allowed to grow powerful enough coincided with Christopher Columbus’ fi rst voy- to threaten the continued existence of any other age to the Americas. Over the next century, Por- great power; 4) no nation has permanent friends, tugal and Spain established the fi rst great oceanic just permanent interests, so alliances should shift empires before England and France formed nation to preserve the balance; and 5) wars are acceptable states: England after the Wars of the Roses (1455– tools for upholding the system. Within the system, 1487) and France after the War of the Three Hen- a great (fi rst‐rate) power was one that possessed suf- rys (1587–1589). These civil wars had kept England fi cient political, economic, and/or military strength and France from developing the characteristics of that every other nation had to consider the great a strong nation state—that is, one with a central power’s interest and possible reaction to any dip- government (in that era a monarch) that had the lomatic or military action it might take. A great allegiance of the political classes, a bureaucracy that power possessed total sovereignty in its internal administered an effi cient tax system, and a standing aff airs and would consider any interference in its army (though in England’s case its Royal Navy was domestic business a casus belli . more important than its army). Lesser nations played roles in the system based The seventeenth century proved a transitional era on their relative power. Second‐rate, or regional, during which emerged the Great Power System, which powers could pursue independent foreign poli- would continue for three hundred years. By 1600 Ibe- cies and control their internal aff airs. Great powers rian power was eroding. Seven northern Netherlands had to consider the interests of second‐rate pow- provinces declared their independence from Spanish ers when operating in the sphere of infl uence of Hapsburg rule, formed the Dutch Republic, fought such a power. Third‐rate powers controlled their the Dutch War of Independence (1568–1648), and foreign policy and, in a major confl ict, could chose, challenged the Iberians by establishing settlements on if not to remain neutral, at least which side to join the Cape of Good Hope, the north coast of South as an ally. A fourth‐rate power did not have such America, Java, and elsewhere. England and France also a choice and was basically a client or satellite of a began forming overseas empires while Prussia, Russia, more powerful state, usually a neighbor. Fifth‐rate, c01 2 25 November 2015 12:43 PM Sea Power and the Modern State System 3 even weaker, powers rarely controlled even their build the nation’s wealth and therefore its power at internal aff airs. the expense of rival nations. Those policies included: During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, 1) protective tariff s to stimulate internal production Spain, the Ottoman Empire, Switzerland, and Swe- and limit imports that would lead to the outfl ow den maintained regional‐power status. The Nether- of specie; 2) establishment of colonies to produce lands and several lesser German states were third‐rate commodities, such as sugar and tobacco, not pro- powers, while Portugal and Denmark became third‐ ducible at home so they would not have to be pur- rate powers by the eighteenth century. The United chased from foreigners; 3) prohibiting colonies from States began as a third‐rate power that benefi ted trading with other nations so that they would pur- from the system during its War for Independence chase manufactures from the mother country, which and grew to be a regional power by the late nine- could also profi t by re‐exporting colonial products teenth century. to other parts of Europe; and 4) forbidding trade in During the eighteenth century Britain partici- foreign ships. The goal of mercantilist policy was to pated in a series of wars with various allies to coun- strengthen a nation’s economy and, thereby, increase ter France, which repeatedly upset the balance of its military power. power. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, France While mercantilism is most closely identifi ed with was fi nally contained, but not reduced from great Jean Baptiste Colbert, French minister of fi nance power status. Instead, the other great powers forced (1662–1683), it was also the philosophical founda- France to accept a king who promised to not again tion for England’s Navigation Acts. The fi rst such challenge the balance of the Great Power System.